https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/ Journal of Rural Research en daily 1 Sun, 26 Apr 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Sun, 26 Apr 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107528.html development, yet in ecologically fragile, peri-metropolitan settings it often produces the opposite. Existing scholarship examines the symptoms separately—overtourism, rural gentrification and digital tourism—leaving the political economy and governance mechanisms that connect them under-theorised. Drawing on a grounded theory study of mountain villages in Iran's Alborz region, this article asks why tourism became a vector of unsustainability. Following a constructivist grounded theory approach, the analysis draws on in-depth interviews with 72 residents, local officials and civil-society actors, coded through initial, focused and theoretical stages. It identifies three interrelated mechanisms: the institutional imposition of tourism space before places are prepared; the conversion of this fragmented context into spatial rent through selective, negotiable enforcement of law; and digitally accelerated overexposure that triggers ecological, infrastructural and managerial breakdown. Theorised as erosive governance in fragile geographies, this recursive process actively exhausts the capacities sustainability requires—showing that fragile destinations depend less on visitor numbers than on being governed before they are exposed. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107513.html A B S T R A C TCommunity participation is widely recognized as a critical component of sustainable tourism development; however, tourism planning in many destinations has historically overlooked the knowledge, consent, and involvement of host communities. Such top down approaches often result in uneven distribution of benefits and limited long term sustainability. In response, Community Based Tourism (CBT) has emerged as a development strategy that emphasizes local participation in tourism planning, management, and decision making while integrating environmental conservation and cultural heritage preservation. This study examines tourism development in Shahmirzad, Iran, and evaluates the extent to which current practices align with CBT principles. A mixed methods approach was adopted, combining quantitative survey data from local residents (N = 199) with semi structured interviews conducted with public officials and local stakeholders. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and one way ANOVA in SPSS, while qualitative data were examined through thematic analysis. The findings reveal a structural gap between community capacity and its actual role in tourism governance. Although residents demonstrate strong support for participatory tourism planning, tourism development in Shahmirzad remains largely reactive and weakly institutionalized. Statistical results indicate broad consensus among residents regarding the need for structured planning and greater community involvement. The study concludes that strengthening participatory governance, institutional coordination, and proactive planning is essential for advancing a sustainable Community Based Tourism model in Shahmirzad. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107837.html A B S T R A C TTerritorial development, which entails the utilization of endogenous resources, is regarded as a relatively new approach based on enhancing the competitiveness of local productive and institutional systems through multidimensional, multifunctional, and regionally diverse principles. In recent years, rural tourism has become one of the strategies adopted to promote, develop, and integrate local factors through the territorial approach. This approach has not only contributed to the achievement of development objectives but has also enhanced the resilience of rural communities. Accordingly, the United Nations has declared 2027 the International Year of Sustainable and Resilient Tourism. This article examines recent trends and advances in rural tourism development as a strategic action informed by the territorial approach at the local scale. The study shows that rural areas whose natural, social, and economic foundations are dependent on tourism need to adopt a territorial approach in order to achieve sustainable development and resilience. Within this framework, the territorial approach has contributed to identifying and prioritizing the most urgent local challenges in the field of rural tourism. It has also provided more sustainable and resilient solutions for villages with tourism potential. Thus, by explaining the theoretical conceptions of the territorial approach, this article contributes to strengthening the foundations of territorial science in sustainable and resilient rural tourism planning. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107901.html A B S T R A C T The success and sustainability of businesses of rural women depend not only on women's individual capabilities but also on a set of environmental, institutional, cultural, and economic factors—known as the "business ecosystem." The present study aims to quantitatively and qualitatively assess the status of the tourism business ecosystem for rural women in two counties, Soume’e sara and Fooman (Gilan Province), and to identify the most important barriers and solutions for its improvement. This research is applied in purpose and survey-descriptive in method, with a quantitative approach and qualitative content analysis. The statistical population included 50 rural women working in tourism (including entrepreneurs, employees, home-based businesses, and local vendors) and 42 local managers (village heads, council members, and cultural heritage experts), selected through a census method. The findings indicate that the overall status of the rural women's tourism business ecosystem from both perspectives is highly unfavorable (overall mean of 1.84 for women and 1.87 for managers out of 5). From the perspective of rural women, the components of "human capital" (1.65), "social" (1.79), and "business" (1.84) are the weakest, while "infrastructure and technology" (2.64) is the relatively most acceptable component. From the perspective of local managers, the components of "infrastructure and technology" (0.9), "social" (1.85), and "business" (1.87) are the weakest, while "culture" (2.95), "support" (2.69), and "education" (2.54) are in a moderate status. This research suggests that policy-making for the development of women's entrepreneurship in rural tourism should be based on three main pillars: "human capital empowerment," "improvement of soft and hard infrastructure," and "changing cultural attitudes." https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_103519.html A B S T R A C T Rural tourism serves as a strategic pathway for economic development, social cohesion and equity, environmental and heritage conservation, community empowerment, and the achievement of sustainable development goals. Since 2021, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) has launched the international “Best Tourism Villages” program to identify and recognize villages that have excelled in these areas. The present study employs a directed qualitative content analysis to identify the key criteria used in selecting Best Tourism Villages across nine evaluation dimensions. All 177 villages listed as Best Tourism Villages from 58 countries (2021–2024) were included as a census. Data were collected from the official UNWTO website, which provides detailed profiles for each village. Using manual coding analysis, 69 unique themes were identified and categorized under the nine evaluation dimensions based on their content and nature. Under the “Cultural and Natural Resources” dimension, key themes included the presence of natural attractions, inclusion in UNESCO World Heritage sites, and proximity to historical and archaeological sites. Major practices, in the “Cultural Heritage Preservation” dimension, comprised organizing cultural events, promoting local handicrafts, and restoring vernacular architecture. Within “Economic Sustainability”, the emphasis was on vibrant local product markets, tourism-based income generation, and the development of small and local enterprises. The “Social Sustainability” dimension highlighted women’s and youth empowerment. Under “Environmental Sustainability”, important themes included biodiversity and ecosystem conservation, adoption of renewable energy, and the use of sustainable technologies. The “Tourism and Value Chain Integration” dimension featured experiential and cultural tourism, diversification of tourism models, and eco-lodges. In “Governance”, practices involved collaboration among government, community, and public institutions, as well as strategic tourism development with participatory planning. The “Infrastructure and Connectivity” dimension focused on improvements in transportation and digital infrastructure, while “Rural Tourism Safety” underscored the effective presence and patrolling of local police in rural tourist areas. Extended Abstract Introduction Rural tourism has increasingly emerged as a strategic pathway for sustainable development, addressing not only economic growth but also social cohesion, environmental protection, cultural preservation, and community empowerment. In this context, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) launched the Best Tourism Villages (BTV) initiative in 2021 to recognize and promote rural communities that exemplify sustainable tourism practices across multiple dimensions. By 2024, a total of 177 villages from 58 countries had been listed as “Best Tourism Villages.” Traditional approaches often emphasize scenic beauty or cultural assets in isolation. In contrast, the BTV initiative evaluates villages as integrated socio-ecological systems. Assessment is conducted through nine comprehensive dimensions: cultural and natural resources, cultural heritage preservation, economic sustainability, social sustainability, environmental sustainability, tourism and value chain integration, governance, infrastructure and connectivity, and health, safety, and security. This study is among the first qualitative, content-driven analyses of all BTV-designated villages globally (2021–2024). Using a directed qualitative content analysis approach, the research identifies recurring themes and best practices embedded within the UNWTO’s evaluation framework. The findings aim to provide policymakers, planners, and rural communities with practical insights into how sustainable tourism evolved into a transformative mechanism for rural development?   Methodology The research adopts directed qualitative content analysis, a method well-suited for interpreting large-scale textual datasets against predefined categories. Data were collected from the official UNWTO website, which provides detailed profiles of each BTV-designated village. The corpus comprised 177 textual profiles, totaling over 80,000 words from 58 countries (2021–2024). Following a census approach, every profile was analyzed without sampling. The nine official UNWTO evaluation axes served as the initial coding framework. Each village profile was read multiple times, and themes were coded manually to ensure contextual accuracy. Through iterative interpretation, 69 unique conceptual codes were identified and grouped under the nine evaluation dimensions. To enhance validity, the coding process was reviewed by three rural tourism and qualitative research experts, and interpretive differences were resolved through consensus.   Results and Discussion Cultural and Natural Resources: The most frequently recurring themes were natural landscapes (52 mentions), UNESCO World Heritage Sites (37), proximity to archaeological sites (31), endemic species and ecosystems (25), and protected areas (18). Villages such as Calato Cienegas (Mexico), Ajeke (China), and Jatiluwih (Indonesia) exemplify how natural and cultural heritage can be integrated with education and tourism, underscoring the value of aligning conservation with visitor experience. Cultural Heritage Preservation: Five major themes emerged: cultural festivals and rituals (41), traditional handicrafts (37), vernacular architecture restoration (30), museums and historical sites (11), and intangible heritage (10). Villages such as Anogia (Greece), El Tambo (Ecuador), and Paucartambo (Peru) demonstrate how cultural practices sustain both identity and economic resilience. Economic Sustainability: Key features included local product markets (85), tourism-based income generation (51), support for small enterprises (46), job creation (19), and diversification (3). Pueblo de Maras (Peru) and Sortelha (Portugal) illustrate how local entrepreneurship and circular economy models can anchor sustainable growth. Social Sustainability: Prominent themes were women’s empowerment (56), youth participation (45), entrepreneurial training (35), community engagement (34), and social equity (10). Jardín (Colombia) and Oñati (Spain) exemplify how social inclusivity transforms tourism into a community-driven development model. 5.Environmental Sustainability: Major findings emphasize biodiversity protection (84), renewable energy adoption (63), waste management (57), organic agriculture (35), eco-lodging (18), and climate resilience (11). Nishi-Kawa (Japan) and Sigüenza (Spain) stand out for comprehensive environmental planning, showing how rural tourism can align with ecological goals. 6.Tourism and Value Chain Integration: The most cited practices included experiential and cultural tourism (58), diversification of models (44), eco-lodges (38), agro-tourism integration (23), and seasonal tourism strategies (14). Villages such as Valposchiavo (Switzerland) and Vechampalli (India) showcase innovative value chain integration linking local production and tourism markets. 7.Governance: Effective governance practices consist of government–community collaboration (46), strategic tourism planning (34), public–private partnerships (20), and participation in international programs (14). Niseko (Japan) and Dongbaek (South Korea) serve as benchmarks in participatory, multi-level governance, aligning local needs with global sustainability goals. 8.Infrastructure and Connectivity: Key priorities were transport improvements (46), digital infrastructure (29), health and water systems (16), accessibility for vulnerable groups (13), and upgraded accommodations (7). St. Anton am Arlberg (Austria) illustrates how integrated transport and environmental planning enhances rural tourism. 9.Health, Safety, and Security: This dimension emphasized disaster preparedness (16), standardized health services (14), safety education (11), and community-police collaboration (10). Bojo (Philippines) exemplifies a systemic approach to health, security, and environmental safety. Overall, the analysis reveals that sustainable rural tourism requires a systemic, multidimensional approach, with strong synergies between cultural preservation, economic empowerment, ecological management, and participatory governance. Notably, 80% of BTV-designated villages were concentrated in 15 countries, suggesting that proactive engagement with the UNWTO and effective national strategies significantly shape participation outcomes.   Results and discussion The qualitative analysis conducted in this study, focusing on the 177 leading rural tourism destinations designated by the World Tourism Organization between 2021 and 2024, reveals dominant patterns and key characteristics in the sustainable development of rural tourism. Employing a directed content analysis method, the study utilized the nine evaluation axes defined by the World Tourism Organization for selecting leading tourism villages as its analytical framework. It extracted 69 conceptual codes, which were organized according to these axes. The findings indicate that the success of these leading tourism villages results from the synergy among cultural and natural assets, economic, social, and environmental sustainability, the development of the tourism value chain, effective governance, adequate infrastructure, and attention to health, safety, and security in tourism. These results not only demonstrate the comprehensiveness of the World Tourism Organization’s evaluation framework but also offer novel insights into priorities and strategies for the sustainable development of rural tourism. From a theoretical perspective, this study contributes to enriching the literature on sustainable rural tourism. The overall findings suggest that rural tourism development, beyond the utilization of natural or cultural attractions, requires a systemic approach that conceptualizes the village as a complex social, economic, and environmental ecosystem. This perspective aligns with sustainable development theories, particularly models based on multi-sectoral synergies (UNWTO, 2022).   Conclusion This study contributes both theoretically and practically to the discourse on sustainable rural tourism. Theoretically, it demonstrates that successful rural tourism is grounded in integrative, cross-sectoral approaches rather than isolated interventions. The prominence of cultural heritage and environmental protection validates theories of place-based development and cultural sustainability (Tang et al., 2021; Mihai et al., 2020). Correspondingly, emphasis on women’s and youth empowerment aligns with social equity frameworks in rural tourism (Ramos-Faraoni & Arbelo-Ballesteros, 2019). Practically, findings provide concrete guidance for rural communities aspiring to join the UNWTO BTV program. Villages should prioritize cultural festivals, handicrafts, and natural heritage conservation while simultaneously investing in small businesses, women- and youth-led enterprises, renewable energy, and participatory governance structures. Infrastructure upgrades in transport and digital connectivity, along with robust health and safety protocols, further enhance competitiveness. For countries like Iran, which recently had Kandovan and Esfahak recognized as BTV villages, these insights underscore the need to expand engagement with the UNWTO, strengthen cultural programming, empower marginalized groups, and integrate circular economy principles. By adopting these strategies, rural communities worldwide can transform tourism into a sustainable engine of inclusive growth. Finally, The practical implications derived from this article are as follows: Strengthening the Protection and Promotion of Cultural and Natural Assets: Governments and local communities should develop comprehensive programs for the preservation of cultural and natural heritage. This effort can be reinforced through collaboration with international bodies such as the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). Focusing on the Empowerment of Marginalized Groups: A portion of policy-making should be directed toward the education and employment of women, youth, and vulnerable groups to enhance social sustainability. Entrepreneurial training programs, similar to the experience of Jardín (Colombia), may serve as a model. Developing Green and Digital Infrastructure: Investment in sustainable transportation, renewable energy, and digital infrastructure (e.g., tourism applications) is essential for improving accessibility and the visitor experience. Strengthening Participatory Governance: The establishment of local councils involving the community, private sector, and government, akin to the Niseko model (Japan), can lead to transparent and sustainable decision-making. Enhancing Health, Safety, and Security Standards in Tourism-Ready Villages: The development of health protocols and safety and security management plans, particularly in remote rural areas, is critical for increasing tourist confidence and ensuring the sustainability of tourism destinations. Promoting Endogenous Value Chains: Experience- and culture-based tourism development, such as food-focused or astro-tourism, should be reinforced by linking it with local production (e.g., Valposchiavo in Switzerland). Given that 80% of the leading tourism villages are concentrated in 15 countries, other nations—including Iran—should increase their engagement with the World Tourism Organization to enhance the likelihood of having more villages included on this list. In conclusion, due to its reliance on official textual data, this study may not have captured all cognitive dimensions of the villages examined, which could serve as a topic for future research.   Funding This study was conducted as an independent academic work and was entirely self-funded. No financial support was received from external funding bodies. Authors’ Contribution All stages of the research—including problem formulation, study design and methodology, data collection and analysis, interpretation of results, and manuscript drafting and final revision—were carried out entirely by the author.   Conflict of Interest The author declares no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.   Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the respected professors at the Department of Geography, University of Tehran, Dr. Mohammadreza Rezvani and Dr. Seyed Ali Badri, for their invaluable guidance and unwavering support throughout this study. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_102814.html A B S T R A C T Today, the diversification of rural resources has positioned tourism as a key driver of rural development. In this context, the development of rural tourism increasingly depends on value creation and the growth of diverse local enterprises. This study aimed to identify key areas of value creation within the context of rural tourism. Methodologically, the study employed a qualitative approach based on a case study design. The research was conducted in the village of Orazan, a rural tourism destination located in Taleghan County, Alborz Province, Iran. A purposive sample of 10 local residents was selected for in-depth interviews. The findings revealed multiple areas of value creation, including: the creative utilization of local assets and tools; delivery of quality services and products to tourists; application of digital communication technologies to promote the village; support for local entrepreneurial initiatives; accurate representation of the destination’s image; improved interactions with tourists; enhanced tourist satisfaction; strategic advertising efforts; online marketing and sales; the establishment of start-ups; incorporation of domestic and international experiences; organization and promotion of local events; investment in local infrastructure; effective mobilization of local knowledge and skills; and the development of innovative products. The study concludes that sustainable value creation in rural tourism requires both the development of core infrastructure and the integration of digital technologies and entrepreneurial innovation. Moreover, recognizing and leveraging the diversity of rural resources plays a crucial role in fostering value creation. Extended Abstract Introduction Rural tourism development is pivotal to integrating cultural heritage with the tourism sector and catalyzing village revitalization. It further serves as an effective mechanism for fostering shared prosperity. A rural tourism destination comprises extensive landscapes dominated by natural, forested, and cultivated environments. Within such settings, distinctive natural, economic, and socio-cultural traits, including traditions, local cooperation, trust, and reciprocity, coexist harmoniously, rendering the destination a single, small-scale tourism product that is nature-compatible, imbued with local distinctiveness, and ultimately sustainable. Within tourism destinations, value is embedded in services and products and can be exchanged to generate benefits for visitors. Yet value creation is increasingly viewed as a co-creative process that unfolds between service providers and tourists. Accordingly, this study addresses the following research question: Which domains underpin value creation in rural tourism destinations?   Methodology This research adopted a qualitative case-study design. In line with case-study logic, the village of Orazan was purposively selected as the bounded field site. Participants comprised local residents of Orazan (Taleghan County, Alborz Province, Iran) who provide catering services or tourism-related products to visitors. Sample size was determined through theoretical saturation, which was reached after ten semi-structured, face-to-face interviews conducted during an extended period of immersive fieldwork. The lead researcher spent considerable time in the village, cultivating rapport and observing daily practices. These interviews elicited participants’ lived experiences, attitudes, observations, and emotions in line with the study objectives. Interview transcripts were analyzed using iterative open and axial coding procedures. Orazan lies 12 km north of Taleghan and is renowned for its perennial springs and scenic waterfalls. Locally called Āb-Rīzān, the village is also the birthplace of eminent Iranian author Jalal Al-e-Ahmad. Ample water resources support extensive walnut orchards, making walnut purchasing a popular tourist activity. The village’s reputation chiefly stems from a cluster of celebrated cascades, Hayad, Khoskeh-Chal, Sorkh-Band, Vari-Yad, and Siah-Band-Ja, among the most notable waterfalls in the Taleghan region.   Results and Discussion Analysis yielded 85 open codes and 15 axial codes that collectively constitute the core categories of value creation in rural tourism destinations. These codes converged into 15 thematic domains that facilitate value creation in the Orazan rural-tourism context: (1) creative utilization of local facilities and tools; (2) delivery of high-quality services and products; (3) deployment of digital communication technologies to promote the village; (4) support for local entrepreneurial initiatives; (5) accurate destination imagery; (6) enhanced tourist–host communication; (7) tourist satisfaction management; (8) strategic advertising; (9) online marketing and e-commerce; (10) establishment of start-ups; (11) integration of domestic and international know-how; (12) organization and promotion of local events; (13) investment in local infrastructure; (14) mobilization of residents’ skills and knowledge; and (15) development of innovative products.   Conclusion Amid accelerating technological and socio-economic change, tourism destinations demonstrate substantial adaptive capacity, and today’s travellers increasingly seek distinctive, memorable experiences in rural settings. Concentrating on core value-creation domains secures competitive advantage, deepens visitor satisfaction and loyalty, and drives innovation in tourism offerings. In Orazan, these domains encompass the creative mobilisation of local assets, the provision of high-quality services and products, and the incubation of new tourism enterprises. Although the village is endowed with rich natural and human resources, converting these assets into innovative visitor experiences depends on harnessing residents’ creativity, an approach that yields tangible, novel tourism products. Moreover, effective value creation presupposes that prospective visitors can readily envisage their engagement with destination offerings; without such imagery, their motivation to visit or extend their stay diminishes. Digitalisation is therefore pivotal for showcasing rural destinations’ capacities and projecting multi-faceted brand images to wider audiences.   Funding There is no funding support.   Authors’ Contribution The author had no research collaborators in this article.   Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest.   Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_103518.html A B S T R A C T Recent developments in rural tourism, particularly in unique destinations such as Kandovan, have been largely shaped by experience-oriented models, cultural consumerism, and the commodification of indigenous spaces. Although these trends have generated short-term economic benefits, they have in the long term contributed to the erosion of cultural capital, socio-ecological systems degradation, and place identity erosion. In response to these challenges, the concept of “regenerative tourism” has emerged as an innovative approach within sustainable tourism development, emphasizing the simultaneous restoration of natural and social environments, the enhancement of human–environment interactions, and the revitalization of the cultural and social capacities of local communities. This study aims to develop a conceptual model of regenerative tourism tailored to the context of Kandovan Village. The research adopts an inductive qualitative content analysis approach, drawing on data from a systematic review of theoretical literature and selected field-based studies. Data analysis was conducted using MAXQDA software following a systematic coding procedure. The findings indicate that the regenerative tourism model in this context is structured around three core components: (1) psycho-ecological restoration, (2) mindful lived experience within indigenous natural and cultural settings, and (3) spatial re-creation through the enhancement of social interactions and the improvement of place-based experiential quality. This model facilitates a transition from a purely consumption-driven form of tourism toward a more sustainable, empowering, and environmentally integrated approach. Ultimately, the proposed model not only enhances tourists’ mental well-being and experiential quality but also strengthens social cohesion and cultural sustainability in rural communities Extended Abstract Introduction In the face of accelerating environmental degradation, urban stress, and socio-cultural erosion, the concept of regenerative tourism has emerged as a response to the limitations of conventional sustainable tourism. Unlike sustainability, which often seeks to maintain the status quo, regenerative tourism actively restores, revitalizes, and regenerates both ecosystems and communities. It emphasizes deeper emotional, psychological, and spiritual connections among visitors, hosts, and the natural environment. In recent years, the transition from consumption-oriented tourism toward experience-based and regenerative models has become one of the most significant topics in tourism studies. Within this perspective, nature is no longer regarded merely as a setting for recreation or sightseeing, but rather as an active component in psychological restoration, stress reduction, and human well-being improvement. Alongside the expansion of urban pressures, psychological fatigue, and the growing disconnection between humans and natural environments, regenerative tourism has emerged as an approach that extends beyond conventional ecotourism. This model emphasizes the simultaneous regeneration of people, places, and local communities. In this context, rural settlements with distinctive environmental and cultural capacities can provide suitable settings for restorative, mindful, and healing experiences. This study focuses on Kandovan village in East Azerbaijan, Iran—one of the few remaining inhabited rocky villages in the world. Kandovan’s unique troglodytic architecture, rooted cultural heritage, and pristine mountainous environment make it an ideal setting for implementing a regenerative tourism model. However, the village currently faces tourism pressures that threaten its ecological balance and local identity. Therefore, a new conceptual framework is needed to guide its tourism development in a way that enhances ecological resilience, cultural depth, and community well-being. Accordingly, this study seeks to develop a context-sensitive conceptual model of regenerative tourism tailored to the ecological, psychological, and cultural characteristics of Kandovan. The model draws on interdisciplinary foundations, including environmental psychology, eco-therapy, biophilic design, and rural development, to propose a holistic approach that moves beyond economic metrics toward human and ecological flourishing. The scientific contribution of this study lies in developing a context-sensitive conceptual framework for regenerative tourism that integrates environmental psychology, eco-therapeutic experiences, rural identity, and regenerative place-making within a single model. Unlike many previous studies that primarily emphasize sustainability or economic dimensions of rural tourism, this research highlights the restorative and psycho-ecological capacities of rural environments. By focusing on Kandovan as a living cultural landscape, the study expands the theoretical discourse of regenerative tourism in rural contexts and provides an interdisciplinary model applicable to ecologically sensitive destinations. Despite the growing body of literature on sustainable and nature-based tourism, inadequate attention has been paid to the psycho-ecological dimensions of regenerative tourism in rural contexts. Most prior studies have concentrated on environmental conservation, economic sustainability, or destination competitiveness, while the emotional, therapeutic, and restorative relationships between humans and rural landscapes remain underexplored. Furthermore, various tourism development models continue to treat local communities and natural environments as passive resources rather than active participants in regenerative processes. This theoretical gap is particularly evident in culturally stratified rural settlements such as Kandovan, where environmental qualities, indigenous lifestyles, and spatial identity are deeply interconnected. Therefore, there is a need for conceptual frameworks capable of integrating ecological regeneration, psychological restoration, cultural continuity, and community participation into a unified tourism model. From a theoretical perspective, this study is grounded in the interdisciplinary relationship among environmental psychology, biophilic approaches, and restorative environment theories. Kaplan and Kaplan’s Attention Restoration Theory suggests that exposure to natural environments can recover cognitive capacities exhausted by everyday mental pressures. Similarly, Ulrich’s Stress Reduction Theory argues that interaction with natural landscapes and ecological elements contributes to emotional relaxation and psychological recovery. In recent years, these theoretical perspectives have formed the conceptual basis for studies related to wellness tourism, nature therapy, and regenerative tourism, emphasizing that place experience can possess therapeutic, spiritual, and identity-related dimensions.   Methodology This research adopted a qualitative, developmental, and exploratory methodology, employing inductive content analysis to construct a conceptual model grounded in academic theory and empirical insights. The data collection process began with a systematic literature review, drawing on 118 scientific sources indexed in databases including ScienceDirect, Scopus, Google Scholar, SID, and Magiran. From these, 42 studies (2012–2023) were selected based on relevance to themes such as psychological restoration, nature-based healing, meaningful tourism experiences, and place attachment. The data analysis proceeded in three stages: Open Coding: The extraction of 235 initial codes representing recurring concepts across the selected studies. These codes included ideas like “restorative landscapes,” “emotional bonding with place,” “eco-therapy through nature immersion,” and “rural authenticity.” Axial Coding: These codes were synthesized into 10 thematic categories,  such as: Psychological Connectedness to Nature; Eco-psychological Healing; Spiritual Place-Making; Therapeutic Aesthetics; Place Attachment; Mindful Experience; Regenerative / Restorative Landscape Quality; Place Identity; Soothing Social Interaction; Rural Landscape Revitalization. Selective Coding: Finally, the themes were consolidated into three major dimensions: Eco-psychological Healing; Conscious Eco-experientiality; Regenerative Place-making and Soothing Social Interaction. These three dimensions form the backbone of the proposed model of regenerative tourism for Kandovan.   Results and Discussion The resulting conceptual model reflects an integrative and multi-dimensional approach to regenerative tourism. It emphasizes the transformation of tourism from a passive consumption activity into a co-creative, healing, and participatory experience. The findings indicate that the regenerative tourism model in Kandovan differs substantially from conventional approaches to rural tourism development. In many traditional tourism models, the primary focus is placed on infrastructure expansion, increasing visitor numbers, and place economic exploitation. In contrast, the regenerative approach prioritizes lived experience, psychological well-being, ecological sustainability, and the reconstruction of the human–nature relationship. Accordingly, the value of place is defined not merely through its capacity to attract tourists, but through its ability to generate meaningful, calming, and restorative experiences. This perspective may provide a foundation for reconsidering rural tourism policies in Iran, particularly in regions characterized by unique environmental and cultural capacities. Dimension 1: Eco-psychological Healing. This dimension builds on theories of restorative environments, eco-psychology, and nature-based healing. Tourists are not merely visitors but participants in psychological and emotional restoration through contact with nature. In the case of Kandovan, the rocky landscape, fresh mountain air, silence, and biodiversity provide ideal conditions for mental clarity, stress reduction, and spiritual reconnection. The analysis demonstrates that eco-psychological healing in Kandovan is not solely the result of physical presence within nature, but rather emerges through a multilayered interaction among sensory perception, place memory, environmental silence, and the qualities of the rural landscape. Visitors encountering the rocky architecture, flowing water, organic spatial textures, natural light, and climatic calmness experience a temporary detachment from the tensions of urban life. This condition enhances mental concentration, reduces psychological disturbance, and strengthens feelings of belonging and emotional security. Therefore, within this framework, nature functions not as a passive background but as an active agent in the process of psychological restoration. Another important aspect of the findings concerns the relationship between spatial authenticity and emotional restoration. The physical structure of Kandovan, characterized by hand-carved rocky dwellings and organically evolved settlement patterns, creates an atmosphere fundamentally different from standardized tourism environments. Such authenticity contributes to what environmental psychologists describe as “experiential depth,” in which visitors perceive places not merely visually, but emotionally and symbolically. The continuity among architecture, landscape, climate, and everyday local life enhances the sense of immersion and strengthens visitors’ reflective awareness. Consequently, the regenerative potential of Kandovan does not derive solely from its natural scenery, but from the integrated coexistence of ecological, cultural, and sensory qualities that shape a holistic restorative experience. Beyond psychological restoration, regenerative tourism also involves the transformation of visitors’ environmental awareness and experiential understanding of place. Dimension 2: Conscious Eco-experientiality. This dimension emphasizes place identity, cultural meaning, and embodied experiences. Conscious eco-experientiality involves the development of reflective awareness through direct engagement with local culture and environment as well. In regenerative tourism, experiences are not designed merely for entertainment or visual consumption, but for cultivating emotional sensitivity, environmental ethics, and meaningful human connection. In Kandovan, everyday practices such as traditional food preparation, local storytelling, seasonal agricultural activities, and interactions with residents can generate forms of experiential learning that reconnect visitors with slower rhythms of life and ecological consciousness. Such experiences encourage mindfulness, empathy, and a deeper appreciation of rural heritage, transforming tourism into a process of self-reflection and existential engagement rather than passive observation.  Tourism activities should be designed to foster authentic interaction with the history, traditions, and daily life of the village. Examples include: Participating in local farming and handicrafts, listening to community elders' stories, experiencing traditional foods and rituals. Such immersive encounters deepen visitors’ sense of belonging while reinforcing the cultural confidence of local residents. Dimension 3: Regenerative Place-making and Soothing Social Interaction. Regenerative tourism cannot succeed without local participation, empowerment, and shared decision-making. This dimension concentrates on bottom-up planning, capacity building, and reinvesting tourism revenue into community well-being and ecosystem restoration. Residents should be seen as tourism co-creators, not passive beneficiaries. From a regenerative perspective, place-making extends beyond physical development and includes the restoration of social cohesion, cultural continuity, and collective identity. Sustainable regeneration cannot occur without strengthening local participation and reinforcing trust among residents, planners, and visitors. In this sense, soothing social interaction refers not only to pleasant communication between tourists and local communities, but also to the creation of emotionally supportive and culturally respectful environments. Strengthening local ownership of tourism initiatives may reduce feelings of cultural displacement and economic dependency while simultaneously fostering community resilience. Therefore, regenerative place-making should be understood as a collaborative and relational process through which tourism contributes to both ecological revitalization and social well-being. Based on the conceptual model extracted from the study, regenerative tourism in Kandovan can be understood as a multidimensional process emerging through the interaction of nature, human perception, and social relations. Within this framework, tourism becomes regenerative when environmental qualities, perceptual experiences, and social interactions collectively contribute to psychological restoration and the creation of meaning. Consequently, regeneration should not be interpreted solely as the physical preservation of place, but also as the revitalization of quality of life, mental well-being, and socio-cultural sustainability. In Kandovan, this might involve: Training local guides in eco-tourism interpretation, establishing community-based accommodation, and encouraging youth entrepreneurship in cultural tourism. The proposed model also carries significant implications for tourism planning and rural development policies. In many rural destinations, tourism growth has resulted in environmental degradation, cultural commodification, and local identity erosion due to excessive commercialization and mass visitation. The regenerative framework proposed in this study offers an alternative strategy that prioritizes ecological balance, community well-being, and experiential quality over rapid economic expansion. Policymakers and tourism practitioners can utilize this framework to design low-impact tourism programs, support local participation in decision-making processes, and strengthen cultural continuity through community-centered initiatives. Moreover, integrating restorative landscape principles into tourism planning may contribute to public mental health by creating environments that encourage reflection, relaxation, and meaningful human–nature interaction. Therefore, regenerative tourism can function not only as a tourism strategy but also as a broader approach to sustainable rural resilience and social well-being.   Conclusion This study proposes a context-sensitive conceptual model of regenerative tourism that integrates environmental, psychological, and cultural dimensions. Rooted in the unique identity and landscape of Kandovan, the model challenges conventional tourism paradigms by focusing on healing relationships between humans and nature, tourists and locals, the past and the future. By prioritizing regenerative over exploitation and participation over commodification, regenerative tourism has the potential to transform places like Kandovan into living laboratories of sustainability and cultural resilience. The model serves not only as a theoretical framework but also as a practical guide for policymakers, tourism planners, and local stakeholders seeking to implement regenerative tourism in rural and ecologically sensitive areas. Ultimately, the study argues that regenerative tourism should not be understood merely as an alternative tourism strategy, but as a transformative framework for rebuilding reciprocal relationships among humans, culture, and the natural environment in an era of ecological and psychological crisis. Although the proposed framework offers a theoretically grounded model for regenerative tourism, the study remains conceptual in nature and would benefit from future empirical validation through field-based qualitative and quantitative investigations involving local residents and visitors.   Funding There is no funding support. Authors’ Contribution The author had no research collaborators in this article.   Conflict of Interest No conflict of interest to declare.   Acknowledgments We are grateful to the three subject-matter experts who supported us in validating the theory. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107511.html A B S T R A C T This study offers a review at the intersection of two key trends in contemporary tourism: the rise of Millennials as a pivotal actor in the tourism market, and the growing prominence of rural tourism on the local development agenda. Drawing on a narrative review of the literature and searches in international databases, studies related to Millennials, tourism, and rural tourism were identified and synthesized using thematic analysis. Compared with previous generations, Millennials exhibit a stronger inclination toward experiential travel, the search for authenticity, self-expression, and the integration of work and travel. When product design, governance arrangements, and the strategic use of peer to peer platforms are aligned with these traits, rural areas can emerge as highly attractive destinations for this generation. At the same time, digital technologies and social media, while facilitating the visibility of rural destinations, also generate risks such as demand volatility, pressure on carrying capacity, and the deepening of institutional gaps, thereby accentuating the disjuncture between Millennial attitudes and their actual behavior. The research argues that Millennials’ encounters with rural social capital and collective ways of life can foster “social learning” and prompt reflexive reconsideration of their individualistic lifestyles. Finally, it proposes an integrated conceptual framework that explains the mechanisms linking generational characteristics, digital technologies, destination attributes, and multidimensional outcomes, and outlines key pathways for forthcoming research Extended Abstract Introduction Rural tourism is no longer viewed merely as a marginal alternative to mass tourism; it is increasingly recognized as a strategic instrument for rural development. By diversifying livelihoods, stimulating entrepreneurship, valorizing local culture, and enhancing environmental assets, it repositions rural areas as spaces of experience, interaction, learning, and place based development. At the same time, tourism demand is being reshaped by generational change, particularly by the growing influence of Millennials (Generation Y). This relationship remains insufficiently theorized in tourism and rural development scholarship. In various contexts, including Iran, rural tourism planning has often relied on an implicit notion of an undifferentiated “average tourist,” paying limited attention to generational differences in motivations, digital practices, travel behavior, and value orientations. This gap is particularly significant in Iran, where rural tourism potential is substantial, yet domestic scholarship has only partially examined how Millennial travel values and digitally mediated practices are reconfiguring destination development and governance. Ignoring these differences may weaken planning and intensify environmental pressure, unequal benefit distribution, cultural commodification, and stress on fragile rural destinations. A generational perspective is therefore analytically necessary. Millennials, commonly defined as those born between 1981 and 1996, are associated with strong digital literacy, intensive social media use, preference for experiences over standardized services, and high reliance on user-generated content, peer reviews, and platform-based decision-making. They are also frequently described as authenticity seeking, flexible, self expressive, and relatively attentive to sustainability, local culture, and ethical consumption. These characteristics suggest a strong affinity between Millennial preferences and rural tourism. Rural destinations offer authenticity, slower rhythms of life, local foodways, nature-based activities, and direct contact with host communities, which are attributes aligned with experiential and participatory travel. Yet this alignment is neither automatic nor uniformly beneficial. Millennial oriented rural tourism depends on balancing authenticity, comfort, digital accessibility, experiential diversity, and sustainability. Moreover, Millennials are not homogeneous; their travel practices vary across class, income, life stage, national context, and mobility constraints, especially in developing countries. Against this background, this paper reviews the literature on Millennials and rural tourism to clarify the behavioral, developmental, and governance implications of their interaction. Rather than treating Millennials only as a market segment, it conceptualizes them as digitally mediated actors who shape destination visibility, influence rural tourism economies, and may participate in broader processes of social learning and rural transformation.   Methodology This study adopts a narrative review design suited to synthesizing interdisciplinary scholarship and generating integrative conceptual insight (Green et al., 2006). Because the topic lies at the intersection of tourism studies, rural development, sustainability, digital media, and generational analysis, a narrative review enables findings from adjacent literatures to be interpreted within a common analytical framework. A structured search was conducted using Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science. Search combinations included Millennials, Generation Y, rural tourism, sustainable rural tourism, user-generated content, peer to peer platforms, digital nomadism, work while travel, transformative tourism, and social learning. The review concentrated primarily on peer reviewed publications published from 2000 onward, while selectively incorporating foundational studies where necessary. Studies were included if they addressed either: (1) Millennial tourists, including their motivations, values, preferences, and behavioral patterns; or (2) rural tourism development, including destination characteristics, governance, sustainability, community participation, and digitally mediated tourism practices. Relevant work on digital detox, remote work, and mid term mobility was also considered where it informed the relationship between generational behavior and rural destinations. The selected sources were analyzed through thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Recurring concepts were coded into five core themes: (1) the changing meaning of rural tourism; (2) generational differences in tourism behavior; (3) Millennial characteristics relevant to rural tourism; (4) the mediating role of digital technologies, user-generated content, and peer to peer platforms; and (5) the developmental, sustainability related, and transformative implications of this relationship. These themes informed a conceptual framework linking generational traits, digital mediation, destination systems, tourism outcomes, and feedback effects through learning and value reorientation.   Results and Discussion The review indicates that rural tourism has evolved from a niche alternative into a multidimensional rural development strategy. It is increasingly linked to community-based initiatives, creative rural economies, lifestyle entrepreneurship, and smart village imaginaries, making rural tourism a field where experience, identity, social relations, and development agendas intersect. The literature also confirms the value of a generational approach. Compared with older cohorts, Millennials display a stronger orientation toward experience, flexibility, personalization, and digital mediation (Kim & Park, 2020). Their distinctive position lies in the combination of digital competence, symbolic influence, and relatively strong demand for participatory and experience centered travel. Several Millennial traits make this cohort especially consequential for rural tourism. One is the preference for authentic, interactive, and participatory experiences. Rather than consuming destinations passively, many seek engagement with local everyday life through food preparation, agricultural activities, craft making, festivals, and nature-based experiences. Rural settings respond well to this demand because they allow place to be encountered as lived practice rather than staged spectacle. Outstandingly, direct interaction with local residents should be understood not merely as a by product of authenticity, but also as an independent dimension of destination attractiveness. A second recurring theme is personalized and self-curated travel. For many Millennials, rural destinations offer temporary escape from urban stress, opportunities for mental restoration, and identity relevant experiences. Rural tourism therefore forms part of a broader search for meaning, well being, and alternative temporalities of life, helping explain the appeal of small scale, flexible, and experience rich destinations over standardized tourism products. A third major finding concerns the central role of digital technologies, user-generated content, and platform mediation. Digital tools shape nearly every stage of Millennial travel, from inspiration and destination discovery to booking, navigation, evaluation, and post-trip sharing (Tonin et al., 2024). In rural tourism, user-generated content is particularly influential because it reduces uncertainty surrounding less familiar destinations. Reviews, photographs, short-form videos, and peer recommendations assist travelers assess accessibility, cleanliness, safety, internet quality, and experiential authenticity. Millennials also actively produce destination narratives through posts, ratings, and visual storytelling, contributing to the symbolic construction of rural places. In this process, destination visibility is increasingly tied to Instagrammability, shareability, and photogenic appeal. Peer to peer platforms intensify these dynamics by enabling direct access to local accommodation, farm stays, workshops, and small-scale experiences. While such platforms may reduce market entry barriers for rural households and micro-entrepreneurs, their impacts remain unevenly distributed. Visibility often concentrates around a limited number of highly rated providers, potentially reinforcing local inequalities and increasing pressure on fragile destinations with weak regulatory capacity. These platforms therefore function not only as marketing tools, but also as intermediaries that reshape rural tourism markets and patterns of inclusion. The review also identifies a digital paradox. Although Millennials are deeply embedded in digital connectivity, part of rural tourism’s appeal lies in temporary disconnection, slower rhythms, and relief from continuous online exposure. Many do not seek total disconnection, but rather selective connectivity: enough digital infrastructure to ensure convenience and security, combined with opportunities for restoration and immersion. Another recurring issue is the attitude to behavior gap. Millennials are often portrayed as more environmentally and socially conscious than earlier generations, and many express support for local economies, cultural preservation, and sustainable travel. However, such attitudes do not consistently translate into practice (Juvan & Dolnicar, 2014). Convenience, affordability, comfort, and social media visibility often shape travel decisions more strongly than stated sustainability commitments. In rural destinations, this gap is particularly consequential because digitally amplified demand can intensify pressure on sensitive environments and communities in the absence of effective planning and governance. The literature further highlights the heterogeneity of the Millennial cohort. Travel behavior varies substantially by socio-economic position, income, life stage, and national context. In numerous developing countries, including those with contexts similar to Iran, Millennial mobility is often domestic, short duration, and budget sensitive. This challenges generalized portrayals of Millennials as globally mobile, high spending experiential tourists and underscores the need for context sensitive theorization. From a rural development perspective, Millennials play a distinctive role in expanding the rural experience economy. Their demand supports products and services beyond accommodation and food, including workshops, agritourism, micro events, guided nature activities, and community-based experiences. Their digital literacy can also connect rural actors to online marketing, platform economies, and reputation systems. In some contexts, the literature points to new forms of return to rurality, semi-rural living, tourism entrepreneurship, and the convergence of tourism with remote work, including digital nomadism, work while travel, and mid-term stays. Yet these opportunities are inseparable from major risks. Poorly governed Millennial-oriented tourism may intensify pressure on water, land, waste systems, and local infrastructure, while also accelerating cultural commodification, visual homogenization, and uneven benefit distribution. Its developmental value therefore depends on governance quality, participatory planning, community control, and destination management capacity. Attracting this cohort also requires more than marketing alone: rural destinations need transport and internet infrastructure, digital branding, online visibility, creative and interactive spaces, and the digital and entrepreneurial capabilities of local providers. The paper’s main conceptual contribution lies in reframing Millennial tourists not only as consumers, but also as potential participants in transformative rural tourism processes. The encounter between Millennial individualism, self-expression, and digitally mediated lifestyles, on the one hand, and rural social capital, reciprocity, place attachment, and collective practice, on the other, may generate forms of social learning. Through meaningful contact with local communities and participation in everyday rural life, some Millennials may reassess consumerist and individual centered urban routines. Rural tourism thus emerges not only as a field of consumption, but also as a site of reflexivity, value negotiation, and possible social reorientation. Accordingly, the paper proposes a conceptual framework linking five dimensions: (1) Millennial generational characteristics; (2) digital technologies and social media mediation; (3) rural destination characteristics and governance systems; (4) travel behaviors and their economic, socio-cultural, and environmental outcomes; and (5) social learning and transformation as feedback processes. The relationship is cyclical rather than linear: generational traits and digital practices shape destination dynamics and development outcomes, while rural experiences may, in turn, reshape values, ethical orientations, and future representations of place.   Conclusion This review demonstrates that the relationship between Millennials and rural tourism is strategically important yet still underdeveloped in the literature. Millennials should not be understood simply as a tourism market segment; they represent a generational force reshaping rural tourism through digital mediation, experience-oriented demand, symbolic destination production, entrepreneurial potential, and selective concern for authenticity and sustainability. At the same time, this relationship is structurally ambivalent. Millennials can help diversify rural livelihoods, stimulate innovation, strengthen community-based tourism, and expand the rural experience economy. Under weak governance, however, the same dynamics may generate ecological pressure, cultural commodification, unequal benefit distribution, and unstable dependence on platform-driven tourism markets. The central policy implication is, therefore, not merely to attract Millennial tourists, but to govern their presence through participatory, community-centered, and sustainability-oriented frameworks. The paper consequently argues for moving beyond a narrow market-centered view of younger tourists. Under appropriate institutional conditions, Millennials can be approached as active actors in rural tourism development rather than passive consumers of place. Future research should examine intra generational diversity more systematically, investigate the sustainability attitude to behavior gap, explore the uneven effects of platform economies across rural destinations, and further develop rural tourism as a site of transformative learning and social reorientation.   Funding There is no funding support.   Authors’ Contribution Hojjat Varmezyari: Idea and conceptualization, methodology, data analysis, article framework and article editing Paria Siahbidi: Data collection, initial text compilation, collection of some sources, writing of the initial text Reihaneh Behrouz: Collection of some sources, preparation of figures.   Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest.   Acknowledgments We are grateful to the three subject-matter experts who supported us in validating the theory. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104033.html A B S T R A C T Contemporary rural development theories emphasize minimizing external intervention while strengthening endogenous processes and supporting the local economy. Tourism presents both positive and negative impacts on the economic prosperity of rural communities. Tourism farms have the potential to stimulate socio-economic development while mitigating negative environmental effects. This study aims to investigate the role of tourism farms, in conjunction with livelihood housing, within a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework of business spaces in endogenous villages characterized by limited development and support. The study employed correlation analysis and structural equation modeling to examine the variables and their structural relationships. The statistical population comprised rural and tourism producers, with a sample size of 180. Data were collected using a closed-ended questionnaire with a 4-point Likert scale, and path analysis was conducted using SPSS 20 and AMOS 24 software. The implementation steps included: (1) developing the index model and converting it into the target model; (2) constructing hypothetical models of intrinsic tourism architecture; (3) evaluating indicators to prioritize two-, three-, and four-factor models; and (4) discussing and interpreting the results within the SEM framework. Removing the exogenous factor of village development and support enhanced the evaluation indicators of the proposed models. Generally, reducing the number of factors and variables improves model fit, with two-factor models often achieving near-zero error. The most complex endogenous structure consists of four factors: tourism farm, livelihood housing, village-creative farm, and non-residential architecture. For three-factor structural planning, non-residential architecture is removed, while for two-factor planning, the village-creative farm is excluded. Extended Abstract Introduction Given the growth of rural populations and the imperative to enhance villagers’ income and welfare, the development of rural businesses has become essential. Contemporary rural development theories primarily emphasize minimizing external intervention, fostering endogenous processes, and focusing on local economies, production activities, and business spaces, including marketplaces. Business space is conceptualized as comprising four elements: (1) livelihood housing, (2) indigenous tourism farms, (3) village-creative farms, and (4) non-residential workspaces. Scholars have offered diverse perspectives on the relationship between tourism and the economic prosperity of rural communities. This relationship can be understood through positive, negative, and dual dimensions: negative impacts arise from extensive and uncontrolled development, whereas positive outcomes result from dispersed and integrated development in the context of sustainable tourism. The dual effects are context-dependent, varying with time, location, and planning strategies. Tourism farms, also referred to as agricultural tourism, can stimulate socio-economic development while mitigating negative environmental impacts. Consequently, they can be categorized as a form of sustainable tourism. However, research on the architecture of rural business spaces remains limited. This study aims to examine the role of tourism farms, in combination with livelihood housing, within a SEM framework of business spaces in endogenous villages characterized by limited development and support.   Methodology To examine the variables and their structural relationships, the study employed correlation analysis and SEM. The study population comprised rural and tourism business owners and producers. A sample of 180 participants was surveyed using a closed-ended questionnaire with a 4-point Likert scale. Path analysis was conducted using SPSS 20 and AMOS 24 software. The implementation steps included: (1) developing the indicator model, entering it into the software, and converting it into the target model; (2) constructing hypothetical models of intrinsic tourism architecture; (3) evaluating indicators to prioritize two-, three-, and four-factor models; and (4) discussing and interpreting the results within the SEM framework. Factor analysis was performed twice in SPSS to identify the underlying factors. Initially, 32 factors were extracted. Due to the large number of factors and resulting modeling options, the variables of each factor were aggregated into composite functions. A second round of factor analysis in SPSS produced seven second-order factors and 21 first-order factors. Subsequently, these factors were incorporated into a conceptual model and refined in AMOS according to standard model fit indicators, ultimately yielding five second-order factors and twelve first-order factors. Regarding relationships among components, the maximum standardized regression weight between the tourism farm and livelihood housing was 1.684. Among the components, indigenous tourism exhibited the strongest association, with a standardized weight of 0.611 in the second stage of livelihood breeding (silkworm production), decreasing to 0.61 and 0.31 in subsequent business stages.   Results and Discussion This study examined the indicators of seven structural relationship models with two, three, and four factors. A summary of the results and their interpretation is presented in the table below.     Table 1. The recommended number of factors involved in business architecture in the village of intrinsic tourism Priority according to the number of factors Impressionable Mediator Influential Number of factors Total rank First 2 factors-attention to the relationship between these two factors in simple planning Livelihood housing - Tourism farm 2 1 Second 2 factors-the development of non-residential buildings is not the first priority. Non-residential business - Tourism farm 2 2 Third 2 factors-not recommended. Creative farm - Tourism farm 2 3 First 3 factors-tourism and creative farms can develop livelihood housing. Livelihood housing Creative farm Tourism farm 3 4 Second 3 factors - not recommended. Non-residential business Creative farm Tourism farm 3 5 This model can be used in planning on the scale of the rural area where these factors exist. Non and residential business Creative farm Tourism farm 4 6 Support development unit to serve rural business development as a initiator, driver and facilitator. Non-residential business 3other factors Support development 5 7     Conclusion In conclusion, the study demonstrated that removing the exogenous factor of village development and support improved the evaluation indicators across all hypothetical models. Therefore, in planning and designing rural business spaces, it is recommended to focus on the minimal number of factors necessary. The simplest and most effective structure highlights two factors: tourism farms and livelihood housing. The most complex model incorporates four factors—tourism farms, livelihood housing, village-creative farms, and non-residential architecture—but produced the weakest outcomes among the proposed models. The optimal configuration is a three-factor model, comprising tourism farms, livelihood housing, and village-creative farms. The elimination of the exogenous factor, combined with the evaluation, validation, and interpretation of the tourism farm business models, demonstrates the effectiveness of removing exogenous influences while preserving the endogenous role of the tourism farm. These findings support the theoretical framework of second-generation rural development, which emphasizes endogenous models.   Funding There was no funding support.     Authors’ Contribution First author prepared the questinarie, collected the data, and drafted the article. The second author supervised the research, checked and controled the results, and corrected, revised, and finalized the article (correspond). The third author interpretated the information and supervised the research. The fourth author participated in research, method design, calculation and analysis of information.   Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest.   Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this research. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_103166.html Introduction Villages, as spatial manifestations of human settlement, constitute key arenas of economic, social, and cultural life and thereby underpin the socio-economic development of many developing countries. Ineffective rural development initiatives reverberate beyond the countryside, adversely influencing urban centres and, ultimately, national development trajectories. Consequently, national progress is contingent upon rural prosperity, which has remained a central policy concern across developing nations for the past several decades. Given the multiplicity of rural development interventions, the involvement of numerous executive agencies in village contexts has become unavoidable. However, cooperation among these institutions is frequently hampered by organisational inefficiencies, managerial shortcomings, and limited professional capacity. Such governance regimes are typically marked by fragile institutions and minimal local participation, generating inefficient service delivery and chronic socio economic lag. In Iran, a highly centralised, sector-specific, top-down planning apparatus engenders poor inter-institutional coordination and redundant activities, thereby undermining cooperation and accountability. Consequently, inadequate cohesion and communication among Iranian rural development organisations have curtailed their capacity to respond to emergent challenges, weakening the stakeholder cooperation network nationwide. Reflecting national patterns, Qazvin Province likewise exhibits a fragile cooperative network among rural development stakeholders. Accordingly, this study seeks to identify the determinants shaping stakeholder cooperation networks in rural development within Qazvin Province, while the persistent disparity between rural and urban welfare indicators underscores the urgency of addressing these structural deficiencies. Methodology This research adopts a descriptive–analytical methodology and is applied in nature, aiming to inform practical planning and policy interventions in rural development. The target population consists of all governmental, semi-governmental, and non-governmental organisations actively involved in rural development activities across Qazvin Province. Using purposive sampling to ensure expert insight and institutional relevance, a total of 36 organisations and centres were selected for participation in the qualitative phase of the study. Data were gathered through exploratory, semi-structured interviews conducted with senior managers, subject-matter experts, and institutional heads who possess direct experience with rural development initiatives. These participants represent a broad spectrum of actors across administrative hierarchies and policy domains. The interviews were transcribed and coded systematically, and qualitative content analysis was performed using MAXQDA software to identify thematic patterns, key categories, and relational dynamics among influencing factors . Results and discussion The analysis yielded twelve principal categories of factors that shape and constrain cooperation among stakeholders in the rural development domain. These include: legal and regulatory frameworks; policy formulation and strategic direction; lack of coordination and institutional collaboration; absence of participatory and long-term planning mechanisms; managerial inefficiencies; structural-institutional features; institutional–managerial interface challenges; infrastructure limitations; financing and resource mobilisation; socio-cultural impediments; human capital development; and environmental constraints. Among these, the financing dimension emerged as the most influential factor, particularly in terms of budget allocation, financial autonomy, and fiscal accountability across stakeholder institutions. Following financing, management-related challenges and weak policy frameworks were identified as the second and third most significant impediments to effective collaboration. Issues related to education, professional development, and human resource management—alongside poorly defined institutional roles and responsibilities—jointly occupied the fourth rank in terms of impact. The findings suggest that these factors are interrelated and mutually reinforcing, creating a feedback loop that stifles innovation, responsiveness, and policy coherence in rural governance. Moreover, institutional mistrust, lack of shared goals, and the absence of knowledge-sharing mechanisms further hinder the formation of durable, goal-oriented cooperation networks. Conclusion The findings of this study underscore the critical limitations of Iran’s rural development governance system, which remains heavily centralised, compartmentalised, and disconnected from grassroots realities. The absence of an integrated macro-level rural development policy, combined with the fragmented implementation strategies of sectoral ministries and agencies, has resulted in a proliferation of poorly coordinated initiatives. This fragmentation manifests in the duplication of mandates, a lack of designated lead institutions, and the absence of a unified theoretical and strategic framework. Additionally, circulars and policy directives are often inconsistent, outdated, or contradictory, leading to institutional confusion and parallel operations at the provincial level. In Qazvin Province, these systemic dysfunctions manifest as weak supervision, insufficient evaluation metrics, underdeveloped infrastructure for inter-institutional networking, and a general failure to adopt technological innovations and integrated systems .Cultural barriers to cooperation, such as the absence of collaborative norms and incentive structures, further diminish the effectiveness of stakeholder networks. The lack of a shared institutional vision, divergent organisational mandates, and limited technical capacity contribute to a fragmented and inefficient governance landscape. Addressing these challenges necessitates a paradigmatic shift toward decentralised, participatory governance models that prioritise network-building, institutional synergy, and evidence-based policymaking. Such a shift would enhance institutional resilience, facilitate cross-sectoral collaboration, and promote sustainable rural development pathways attuned to both local specificities and national priorities. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_103174.html Introduction In addition to safeguarding food security, smallholders engage in rational economic decision-making and contribute substantially to overall economic growth. Consequently, a fundamental enhancement of smallholder farming is essential to meeting the sustainable development goals and cultivating food systems that are healthier, more equitable, and sustainable. However, smallholder farmers are confronted with a range of challenges. Given the formidable obstacles smallholders face and the critical role that smallholder agriculture plays in overall food security, the formulation and execution of robust public policies in the agricultural sector are essential. Such policies help cultivate a supportive business environment and maintain sustainable production within smallholder agriculture, thereby bolstering food security. In this context, public policy encompasses the array of governmental actions—implemented either directly or indirectly by public institutions—that significantly influence the everyday lives of citizens. Nonetheless, policy measures intended to support smallholder farmers often fail to correspond with their actual needs and circumstances. The intricacy of administrative procedures can further impede these farmers, limiting their ability to fully access and benefit from government support. Such administrative intricacies often hinder the capacity of smallholder farmers to actively engage in the policymaking process, thereby limiting their ability to effectively champion their own interests and priorities. Considering the inherent constraints faced by smallholder farmers and the deficiencies in prior research, it is essential to systematically examine the obstacles that inhibit this group from benefiting fully from public agricultural policies, and to propose viable mechanisms for resolving these challenges. In this context, the present study aims to analyze the barriers preventing smallholder farmers in Kermanshah Province from reaping the benefits of agricultural public policies, in the areas of infrastructure, extension, finance, market access, input, and risk management. Methodology Given the limited body of research examining the effectiveness of public policies on smallholder agriculture, this study employed a grounded theory methodology to investigate the issue. The unit of analysis for this research comprises smallholder farmers in Kermanshah Province who own less than five hectares of land—a group identified through analytical induction and theoretical sampling. Data analysis and interpretation were undertaken using a three-stage coding process. Overall, this methodological approach yielded 75 open codes and 21 axial codes. Results and discussion The smallholder farmers interviewed typically belong to families with more than five members. The "Production Leap in Rainfed Areas" plan, implemented to enhance the productivity of smallholder agriculture in Kermanshah Province, has partially fulfilled farmers' needs, particularly in terms of input provision. However, according to interviews, the extension services generally fail the farmers' needs as they are either irrelevant in the interventions they develop or focus on. The smallholder farmers' limited financial capacity often precludes them from affording the agricultural inputs and equipment recommended during training sessions. The available infrastructure projects, including irrigation systems, are also seldom appropriate for small-scale plots of land. Access to finance remains limited because the elaborate application procedures, stringent collateral assessments, and a lack of inclusive financial mechanisms collectively prevent many smallholders from securing the necessary loans. In this regard, one of the smallholder farmers who wanted to establish a greenhouse said: “Due to insufficient capital to both establish and operate a greenhouse, I sought a bank loan for financing. However, the bank required collateral to secure the repayment of the loan—a requirement that I was unable to meet, ultimately leading me to abandon the venture”. Moreover, market access poses substantial challenges, primarily due to the power of middlemen. The interviews revealed that the limited benefits smallholder farmers derive from public agricultural policies can be attributed to three main factors: a policy-making system inadequately aligned with smallholder needs, the challenges imposed by small landholdings, and a lack of effective organization of the smallholders. In addition, the prevalent top-down approach and the evident bias among government officials toward large-scale farmers have amplified feelings of marginalization among smallholders and deepened the perceived gap between officials and the small producers. The interview analysis revealed that the enhanced focus on smallholder farmers during the Jihad-e-Sazandegi period (1979–2001) can be understood through nine overarching dimensions. These include: (1) the sensitivity of Jihadists to the social and cultural needs of farmers; (2) the establishment of close, personal relationships with the farming community; (3) the cultivation of an optimistic and hopeful outlook; (4) a conscientious commitment to responsibility and diligent follow-up; (5) the adoption of a bottom-up, empowerment-oriented approach in planning; (6) the agile and flexible organizational structure of Jihad-e-Sazandegi; (7) the promotion of humility coupled with active interaction and the formation of working groups; (8) a pronounced inclination among Jihadists to serve the underprivileged; and (9) the prompt and efficient implementation of programs. This detailed categorization not only reflects the multi-dimensional strategies employed during that period but also underscores the critical role of adaptive and inclusive practices in addressing the unique needs of smallholder farmers. Conclusion The current situation raises critical questions regarding the inclusivity and responsiveness of current agricultural policies. It underscores the need for a more bottom-up approach that recognizes the unique constraints of small-scale farming and fosters organizational structures that empower all farmers, ensuring that policy frameworks are truly reflective of the diverse realities on the ground. Effective farmer support programs necessitate a comprehensive suite of reforms underpinned by inclusive, adaptive policies. This involves streamlining administrative procedures and instituting capacity-building initiatives that empower staff to utilize participatory planning and community engagement strategies. Moreover, establishing local forums or joint meetings with farmers is vital for amplifying their voices and integrating their insights into policy formulation and implementation. Finally, addressing issues of land fragmentation and enhancing farmers' bargaining power requires the consolidation of land holdings and the strengthening of farmer cooperatives. Funding There is no funding support. Authors’ Contribution The sequence of author contributions corresponds directly with the order in which their names appear. All of the authors approved the content of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none. Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_103484.html Introduction In recent years, the Dena Biosphere Reserve, the tenth to be designated in Iran, has experienced substantial ecological degradation as a result of unsustainable exploitation. Currently, approximately half of its territory is designated as a nationally protected area, while the remainder remains outside any formal conservation framework. The region holds exceptional conservation value due to its diversity of rare, endemic, vulnerable, and endangered plant and animal species. Key threats to the region’s forest and rangeland ecosystems include land-use conversion, inefficient irrigation practices, absence of crop pattern management, neglect of crop rotation and diversification, inadequate waste disposal, unsustainable harvesting and commercialization of medicinal and edible plants, illegal trapping and hunting of wildlife, insufficient legal protection for rangers, and the adverse impacts of traditional agricultural practices. In addition, the region’s forests have been exposed to compounding ecological stressors, including declining rainfall, dust storms, pest outbreaks, plant diseases, and forest dieback. Limited governmental capacity to safeguard natural resources has made the involvement of local communities essential for forest restoration and conservation. Located at the core of the Zagros Protected Area and encompassed by the Dena Reserve, Dena County exhibits ecological and socio-territorial characteristics that distinguish it from other regions of the country. Moreover, the rural population’s high dependence on natural resources for subsistence and livelihoods accentuates the urgency of developing effective forest and rangeland management strategies. Accordingly, in light of the ecological significance of forests and rangelands and the critical role of participatory governance in their sustainable management, this study seeks to identify and evaluate the most influential factors shaping participatory management of these resources in the rural context of Dena County. Methodology This study adopts a descriptive-analytical design and a quantitative survey to explore the factors that shape community-based participatory management of forests and rangelands in Dena County, Iran. The statistical population comprises all inhabited villages in the county. Of the 90 villages containing ten or more households, 30 settlements, and 485 individual respondents, were selected through stratified proportional sampling. Research components and indicators were identified via a systematic review of the pertinent literature. Fourteen factors served as independent variables, while 21 items, organized into five dimensions (decision-making, planning, implementation, monitoring, and utilization) that operationalize forest-and-rangeland management, were aggregated as the dependent construct of participatory management. Data were gathered with a structured questionnaire. Reliability tests yielded Cronbach’s alpha coefficients above 0.70 for all factors, and content validity was endorsed by a panel of 37 experts. Multiple-linear regression and path analysis were performed to estimate the magnitude and significance of each factor’s effect on participatory forest-and-rangeland management. Results The results of the path analysis of direct and indirect effects reveal that social responsibility exerts the strongest influence on participatory management of forests and rangelands in the rural areas of Dena County, with a total effect score of 2.91. This is followed by the factors of social networks (1.47), personal characteristics (1.39), transparency (1.35), social trust (1.33), managerial decision-making (0.98), leadership capacity (0.97), accountability (0.95), norms (0.90), legality (0.68), economic conditions (0.57), social knowledge (0.44), policy frameworks (0.35), and environmental awareness (0.32). These variables were identified as the most influential determinants of participatory forest and rangeland management in the rural context of Dena County. discussion Social responsibility emerged as the most influential driver of participatory forest- and rangeland-management among rural communities. The findings suggest that a strong sense of responsibility fosters local self-reliance, prompting villagers to apply expert-endorsed silvicultural and ecological restoration practices while still accommodating state oversight. These insights carry clear policy implications: decentralized forest-governance arrangements must first identify the poorest and most vulnerable households and then craft regulations that explicitly safeguard their interests. Achieving this goal demands an enabling socio-economic, cultural, and political environment so that decentralized management generates inclusive benefits for the whole community. Consequently, local communities welcome participatory, or decentralized, forestry because it allows them to shape decisions on forest use, livelihood strategies, and the commercialization of forest products. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of such schemes hinges on equitable participation and fair benefit-sharing within the community. Conclusion The findings of this study indicate that all identified factors hold significance, although their levels of influence vary. Furthermore, each of these influential indicators may act as a catalyst or prerequisite for the effectiveness of other factors. Therefore, forest and natural resource management plans must prioritize participatory management. Moreover, enhancing the participation of women and marginalized groups in forest and rangeland management decision-making is essential to guarantee equitable benefits for all stakeholders. This study highlights the necessity of transitioning from a top-down forest conservation approach to a more inclusive model engaging all societal members throughout every stage of forest and rangeland management. Such a transition is anticipated to promote sustainable forest and rangeland conditions and improve livelihood opportunities for rural communities. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104032.html Extended Abstract Introduction Space has social, economic, environmental, and ecological dimensions and derives its meaning from social interactions. Land commodification turns land into a marketable good for profit. In western Gilan, particularly in rural-urban areas, this phenomenon has altered settlement and economic patterns. Rural-to-urban migration and the sale of agricultural lands to non-locals have disrupted the region’s spatial structure, shifting from a production-based to a consumption-oriented economy. This trend has led to environmental degradation, decreased agricultural production, and heightened social and economic inequalities. Understanding the impact of land commodification on the region’s spatial structure is crucial. Methodology The present study is applied, descriptive-analytical, and employs a mixed-methods approach (quantitative and qualitative). Data were collected through documentary research and fieldwork (interviews and questionnaires). The study area covers western Gilan province, with land-use patterns, locals, and experts as the unit of analysis. The sample size was determined using snowball sampling for experts and personal estimation for the local community. Land-use changes and commodification were analyzed using Landsat satellite images (1989, 2000, 2013, 2020), NDVI, and DEM from the ALOS PALSAR satellite. Data were processed with ENVI and ArcGIS software. The sample included 145 experts and 386 local households. Using Creswell’s mixed-methods typology, data were simultaneously collected, interpreted, and analyzed. Results and discussion The results of this study on the commodification of land in the western region of Gilan province indicate significant land-use changes over a 30-year period. Analysis of satellite images shows a consistent decline in agricultural and forested lands alongside a sharp increase in residential areas. These changes are mainly driven by factors such as urban expansion, rural-to-urban migration, and the rising demand for second homes due to tourism. Additionally, barren and pasture lands shift seasonally between these classifications due to climatic conditions. The commodification process is most evident in the rapid growth of residential land use, far exceeding the natural population growth rate. In counties like Astara, residential areas have increased ninefold, while agricultural and forested lands have drastically decreased. Similar trends are observed in counties like Talesh, Fuman, and Masal, where the conversion of agricultural and forested lands into residential zones is widespread. Global comparisons further highlight this trend. In countries like South Africa and China, land commodification aligns with market-driven policies and privatization efforts, often leading to significant socio-economic impacts. In Turkey and South Korea, government control and real estate investments exacerbate land commodification by limiting land availability and driving up prices. Overall, this study emphasizes the urgent need for sustainable land management policies to curb the overexploitation of agricultural and forested lands and mitigate the socio-economic consequences of rapid land commodification in the region. Conclusion The study of land commodification in western Gilan reveals the profound and multifaceted impacts of this phenomenon on economic, social, cultural, and environmental dimensions. The region's unique climatic conditions and scenic landscapes have attracted increasing numbers of tourists, transforming it into a major tourism hub in Iran. This influx has driven significant changes in land use, with rising demand for accommodation and recreational facilities leading to extensive conversion of agricultural lands into tourism-related properties. As a result, speculative land trading has surged, driving up land prices and pushing rural communities toward selling their lands in pursuit of short-term profits. Economically, the commodification of land has led to soaring property prices, speculative trading, and the erosion of productive agricultural activities, threatening long-term food security and sustainable rural development. Socially and culturally, the influx of non-local investors and tourists has altered traditional lifestyles, reshaped demographic compositions, and introduced cultural disparities, leading to weakened community cohesion and identity. Environmentally, widespread land conversion has disrupted ecosystems, reduced agricultural lands, and increased ecological degradation, including deforestation, pollution, and habitat loss. Comparative analysis with other countries such as China, South Korea, and African nations illustrates how varying governance structures and regulatory policies influence the trajectory of land commodification. In Iran, the lack of effective policies, weak regulatory oversight, and insufficient support for sustainable land use have exacerbated the negative outcomes. To mitigate these issues, urgent policy interventions are required, including strict regulation of land transactions, legal documentation for land ownership, and the establishment of a comprehensive land management system. Promoting agricultural productivity, diversifying rural income sources, and enforcing environmental protections are essential for balancing economic development with ecological sustainability. Ultimately, controlling the commodification of land in western Gilan requires collaborative efforts from government agencies, local communities, and civil society organizations to preserve agricultural resources, maintain cultural heritage, and ensure long-term environmental integrity. Implementing integrated land management policies and fostering sustainable tourism can help achieve equitable development and safeguard the region’s future Funding This article is derived from the project: "The Commodification of Land and the Explanation of Its Spatial Effects in the Western Region of Gilan Province." It was conducted with the financial support of the Central Office of Jahad-e-Daneshgahi of Iran in 2023. Authors’ Contribution Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved thecontent of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none. Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104034.html Introduction Achieving equilibrium within rangeland ecosystems represents a significant challenge in the context of sustainable rangeland management. Sustainable development, irrespective of its scale or objectives, demands principled, efficient planning and meticulous execution. For the successful implementation of diverse economic, social, and environmental programs, it is essential to formulate development strategies, ensure effective planning and execution, and assess the capacities, limitations, and developmental status of local settlements. This process must be based on a set of robust indices that provide a comprehensive evaluation. This study aims to evaluate the sustainability of, and analyze its components among, the users of the customary pastoral units in the winter rangelands of Chaypareh County. Methodology This study employed survey and descriptive-analytical methods to evaluate and assess the sustainability of the customary pastoral units in the winter rangelands of Chaypareh County. The research utilized indices introduced in prior studies, and the sustainability barometer model was applied to measure sustainability. This model, proposed by Prescott-Allen, consists of two primary components: ecosystem welfare and human welfare. Both elements must be improved to achieve sustainable conditions. The sustainability barometer divides sustainability into five levels and measures it based on the two variables of ecosystem welfare and human welfare. Five pastoral units were selected for analysis, considering factors such as the number of utilizers, accessibility, livestock density, and the area of the rangelands. Thirty questionnaires were completed by the utilizers. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each section of the questionnaire ranged from 0.745, which falls within the acceptable range. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to compare the mean scores of the sustainability evaluation components, and Duncan's multiple range test was employed to identify intra-group differences. Results In the studied pastoral units, 57% of the participants were male and 43% were female. The majority of respondents were middle-aged. The analysis revealed significant statistical differences among the sustainability components across social, economic, and environmental dimensions. Specifically, the social components of sustainability were classified into four distinct groups. Duncan’s test showed significant differences in the mean scores of the social components in the sustainability assessment of customary rangeland systems. The cultural capital component had the highest mean score (0.675), while the services component had the lowest (0.409). The economic dimensions of sustainability were categorized into four distinct groups. The 'activity and employment' component showed the highest mean score (0.679), whereas the 'utilization' component had the lowest mean score (0.433). Duncan’s grouping revealed that the environmental-ecological components of sustainability were divided into three statistically distinct groups. Among the environmental components, the 'environmental health' component, with a mean of 0.558, exhibited the highest score, while the 'water resources' component had the lowest mean score (0.267). The ecological-environmental dimension of sustainability, with a value of 0.612, showed the highest sustainability, while the social dimension, with a score of 0.484, had the lowest. Regarding social sustainability, the Salte pastoral unit, with a sustainability value of 0.608, was classified as potentially sustainable and exhibited the highest level of social sustainability among the winter rangeland pastoral units. In terms of economic sustainability, the Salte unit, with a sustainability value of 0.418 and moderate sustainability, ranked at the first level of economic sustainability. For ecological-environmental sustainability, the Nalband pastoral unit, with a sustainability value of 0.399 and potential sustainability, also ranked at the first level. The Sustainability Barometer model indicated that all studied pastoral units were in a state of potential unsustainability. Conclusion The findings of this study underscore the importance of addressing all dimensions of sustainable development in order to ensure the long-term sustainability of rangelands. Specifically, the results highlight that users of winter rangelands face numerous challenges, especially in relation to environmental sustainability, grazing management, and livelihood conditions. Effectively tackling these issues requires focused planning and targeted policy interventions. Two critical factors—livelihood status (which encompasses income and expenditure levels of utilizers) and rangeland utilization patterns (specifically adherence to the technical principles of livestock management)—are pivotal in influencing the sustainability of these rangelands. To improve the sustainability of pastoral units in the region, it is recommended to provide training in both technical and managerial areas, promote alternative livelihoods and sustainable income-generating activities to reduce dependence on rangelands, diversify economic activities, enhance productivity, and ensure adherence to rangeland capacity and readiness. This integrated approach will contribute to sustainable development and the improvement of rural livelihoods while conserving water and soil resources. The implications of these measures may include strengthening stakeholders' sense of ownership and belonging, enhancing active participation in rangeland restoration projects, and fostering mutual trust between beneficiaries and executive agencies. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104035.html Extended Abstract Introduction Over the past three decades, the Iranian government has pursued a strategy to revitalize rural regions by promoting tourism-driven entrepreneurial activities. This initiative aims to generate diverse non-agricultural employment opportunities, broaden income avenues for farmers, and improve the livelihoods of rural households. Such optimism is well-founded, given that Iran’s rural landscapes offer a rich array of attractions, each providing unique experiences for visitors. However, the tourism-led approach has produced mixed outcomes, largely due to uneven demand across regions and insufficient collaboration among service providers to fully capitalize on the available attractions. Consequently, natural and cultural resources have experienced degradation, while the financial benefits accrued to local communities have remained limited. Although tourism can stimulate economic growth and generate employment, it simultaneously poses substantial challenges that demand careful consideration. Iranian scholars have engaged with these issues, often concentrating on development theories and system dynamics. Nevertheless, limited attention has been given to the political and ideological dimensions of tourism, particularly its role as an instrument of state authority. This research aims to describe, analyze, and evaluate the evolution of rural tourism within the framework of current policies. The study focuses on the mechanisms of disciplinary power through which governance practices shape the roles, behaviors, and agency of local actors. Methodology This study employs a functionalist framework to examine the dynamics of rural tourism development. In developing countries, implementing tourism policies poses significant challenges, largely due to the persistent gap between policy design and actual execution. This frequently leads to an overemphasis on economic gains while neglecting other crucial dimensions, including the active participation of local stakeholders. The functionalist perspective, which conceptualizes policy implementation as merely the final stage of a cyclical process, overlooks the complex political dynamics inherent in this phase. Effective implementation requires cultivating awareness and garnering support for the instruments employed, alongside forming coalitions to increase the likelihood of successful outcomes. Challenges may emerge because the public sector, guided by economic, social, and environmental considerations, provides both the political impetus and structural framework for a tourism industry primarily oriented toward profit generation based on tourist preferences. A qualitative and exploratory research design enables the investigation of competing interests among diverse stakeholders. Accordingly, the analysis draws on in-depth qualitative interviews and a focus group discussion to capture local stakeholders’ perceptions and the factors shaping their engagement with tourism initiatives. Participants were selected using a purposive sampling strategy. Content analysis was conducted using predefined categories and subcategories derived from the research questions and interview prompts. New categories also emerged inductively as the researchers engaged with the transcribed data and were subsequently integrated into the analysis. The study involved 57 participants from Dizbad, Gerineh, Kharv, Darroud, Bozhan, and Bar, including 30 local residents, 15 tourists, 7 government officials, and 5 representatives from participating companies. Data were coded, classified, and organized in five stages using MAXQDA10 software. Results Analysis of the data yielded 83 primary codes and 19 core categories, which were organized into two overarching thematic domains. These domains comprise: (1) the positive and negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism, reflecting stakeholders’ concerns and highlighting the need for a coherent harmony plan; and (2) centralized planning coupled with limited local community participation in decision-making, emphasizing the dominant role of corporate and external investments owing to their resources and expertise. Findings indicate that the government assumes a predominant role in Neyshabur, performing multiple functions including planner, promoter, regulator, investor, and investment agent. The analysis reveals that the government often prioritizes local income generation and employment opportunities over broader environmental, social, and cultural considerations. Moreover, the government favors assigning a central role in tourism development to external companies rather than local communities, perceiving them as possessing the necessary capital and expertise. Discussion Recent research has primarily focused on innovations within the business sector, frequently neglecting the impact of policy frameworks and governmental interventions. This study emphasizes the need for a more nuanced examination of collaborative governance in tourism innovation, particularly from the perspective of customer-driven innovation. Moreover, it is crucial to identify and understand the barriers and challenges that may emerge during the implementation of such governance frameworks. In the case studies examined, although there is substantial support for the government’s call to enhance resident participation, state-backed corporate initiatives frequently dominate, often marginalizing local engagement. Such dominance is generally counterbalanced only when influential local leaders, possessing strong political connections and well-integrated into the system, are able to effectively advance local initiatives. Conclusion The Iranian government upholds particular principles regarding development and economic policies, emphasizing that income should be distributed equitably among all stakeholders, including local communities, rather than being concentrated exclusively within corporate entities. Although this principle is not always fully realized in practice, it can be pursued through alternative strategies that align with the broader developmental objectives. In practice, the government aims to stimulate regional income and employment opportunities through collaboration with external companies, while emphasizing the critical importance of local residents’ utilization of resources. Consequently, fostering collaborative synergy and cultivating social capital are recognized as essential elements for the sustainable transformation of the rural economy. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104036.html Extended Abstract Introduction Economic and social resilience are fundamental to understanding how communities operate and respond to various shocks and stressors. Social resilience refers to the capacity of communities to absorb disturbances, adapt to evolving conditions, and sustain social stability and collective well-being. Economic resilience, meanwhile, acts as a critical driver of societal welfare and quality of life, shaping social structures and contributing to long-term sustainability. The interplay between these two dimensions underscores the importance of comprehending their reciprocal effects on community resilience. Social interactions and Human dynamics are pivotal in shaping the resilience capacity of communities. Factors such as economic volatility, employment stability, and financial security directly influence a society’s adaptive responses to crises. Within this framework, stakeholder engagement emerges as a central mechanism for resilience-building, involving actors such as public institutions, private sector entities, and local communities in formulating policies that foster socio-economic stability. Effective stakeholder collaboration necessitates transparent communication, cooperative action, and shared accountability to reinforce resilience frameworks.. This study seeks to examine how economic resilience contributes to strengthening social resilience, with particular emphasis on stakeholder interactions. The empirical focus is on Sistan and Baluchestan Province, a region facing acute economic and environmental challenges, including water scarcity, infrastructure deficits, and socio-economic fragility. The research addresses two core questions: (1) To what extent does economic resilience foster social resilience in the study region? (2) Does economic resilience mediate the relationship between stakeholder engagement and social resilience? Methodology Sistan and Baluchestan, the second-largest province in Iran, spans approximately 180,726 square kilometers in the southeastern region of the country. Bordering Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the Oman Sea, the province holds a strategic position as a hub for trade and transit. Despite its abundance of natural resources - including gold, copper, and chromite - the province faces severe environmental challenges such as water scarcity, climate change, and recurrent drought. Although endowed with economic potential, Sistan and Baluchestan remain Iran’s underdeveloped provinces, grappling with inadequate infrastructure, migration challenges, and socio-economic instability. However, with targeted investments, the province's substantial resources and strategic location could transform it into a regional hub for economic activity and tourism. This study investigates the dynamics of stakeholder interactions and social resilience, with particular emphasis on the role of economic resilience in the province. The research first conducted a socio-ecological boundary analysis, followed by a comparative assessment to identify key variables and regional characteristics. Stakeholder interactions were subsequently examined through systematic data collection. The study sample comprised 315 participants, including government officials, technical experts, and private-sector stakeholders, selected using purposive sampling. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire designed around a five-point Likert scale. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to examine relationships among variables, with data analysis conducted using SmartPLS software. Both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were performed using SPSS and SmartPLS. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire were confirmed through expert judgment and calculation of Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The study conceptualizes stakeholder interactions as the independent variable, economic resilience as the mediating variable, and social resilience as the dependent variable. Results and discussion This study employed factor analysis to assess the influence of stakeholder interactions on both social and economic resilience. Initially, the adequacy of the data for factor analysis was evaluated using the KMO measure and Bartlett’s test of sphericity, both of which confirmed the suitability of the dataset. Subsequently, the model’s validity and reliability were assessed through factor loading, Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, and both convergent and discriminant validity indices, all of which fell within acceptable thresholds. The Structural equation model was further validated using the GOF index, with a value of 0.187 indicating an acceptable model fit. Moreover, analysis of the mediating role of economic resilience using the VAF index revealed a moderate mediating effect between stakeholder interactions and social resilience. The findings suggest that stakeholder interactions - encompassing governmental bodies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local communities, and the private sector - play a pivotal role in enhancing both social and economic resilience. Such interactions contribute to social resilience by reinforcing social networks, enhancing public awareness, and fostering collective solidarity. Furthermore, the expansion of economic opportunities and enhancement of livelihood security bolster, foster intergroup trust and mitigate the risk of internal tensions. Formulating multi-level strategies grounded in institutional collaboration and efficient resource utilization can significantly enhance resilience to future crises. This research offers a strategic framework for policymaking in less-developed regions and underscores the critical importance of stakeholder engagement in strengthening socio-economic resilience. Conclusion The findings of this study highlights the vital role of stakeholder interactions—among government, NGOs, local communities, and the private sector—in enhancing social and economic resilience. These interactions promote knowledge exchange, communication, and public awareness, strengthening cohesion and solidarity. Economic resilience acts both independently and as a mediator, boosting the effects of stakeholder engagement on social resilience. Strategies like expanding economic opportunities, improving livelihood security, and fostering local capacity are key to crisis preparedness and response. The research emphasizes multi-level, collaborative approaches as essential for building resilience, especially in underdeveloped contexts. Keywords Economic resilience, social resilience, stakeholder interactions, social cohesion, livelihood security, multi-level governance, structural equation modeling (SEM), social capital, economic solidarity, intergroup trust, development of economic opportunities, social networks, socio-economic sustainability, public and private sector institutions, performance. Funding This article is derived from a master’s research project conducted at Tarbiat Modares University. The authors gratefully acknowledge provided by the university and its Office of the Vice-Chancellor for Research. We also extend our sincere appreciation to all the participants who generously contributed their time, patience, and insights during the interviews and group discussions. Authors’ Contribution The authors approved the content of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the declaration of non-competence. Conflict of Interest There are no conflicts of interest among the author(s). https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104037.html Introduction In recent years, some areas of Iran have faced a serious water crisis, and the government, as a manager of water resources, has faced challenges. The water crisis also disrupts environmental, social, and economic functions, causes a gradual lack of food security and a decrease in people's satisfaction level; water restrictions and increased demand lead to water shortages and increased tension at regional and international levels, and within the country, between provinces for the system Water transfer creates conflicts. In the meantime, water restrictions are clearly evident in the villages of eastern Iran. Since the main tool of development in desert areas is water, South Khorasan province, as the second desert province and the easternmost province of Iran, has a special place in the production of horticultural and agricultural products of the country and has a high potential in the mining sector, to the title of the study area was selected. Among this province, Makhoonik village is one of the seven wonderful villages of the world in Sarbisheh city, which has been most damaged by the water crisis in the rural development sector, so the effects of the water crisis are clearly evident in the various dimensions of rural poverty. Therefore, this research aims to answer this basic question: -What is the semantic understanding of the effects of the water crisis on rural poverty in Makhoonik? In other words, according to the native community and experts, what are the causal, contextual, and intervening categories and concepts that affect the effects of the water crisis in Makhoonik rural poverty? Methodology With the aim of using the qualitative paradigm, the present article studied the semantic understanding of the effects of the water crisis on the poverty of Makhoonik village (one of the seven wonderful villages in the world). In terms of developmental-applicative goal, paradigm in the qualitative research group, and method, it has benefited from the basic theory (contextual theory), which is based on the inductive approach. The statistical population included two categories of rural key informants (village residents and some experts and planners of rural development in Iran); 22 people were selected using the snowball method and using in-depth and semi-structured interviews. Structured and finally reaching theoretical saturation, the data was collected. To analyze the narratives, a three-stage open, central, and selective coding method was used, and then the basic theory was drawn based on the paradigmatic model of the semantic understanding of the effects of water in the poverty of Makhoonik village. Results and discussion The findings showed that in the rural poverty of the study area, the categories of traces of water crisis in the poverty of environmental foundations, poverty of rural culture, poverty of social relations, poverty of the economic system and rural productivity, institutional and management poverty, security poverty, respectively. Food, the poverty of the village communication system, and the trace of the water crisis in the poverty of the rural context have been necessary, and the most important category (the core category) was "the spatial system governing the region (the trace of the water crisis in the perspective of cultural and environmental poverty of the village)." The findings of the background study on the semantic understanding of the effects of the water crisis in rural poverty clearly show that the expansion of water shortage in a geographical context (village) is an important factor that can lead to material and social limitations; the limitation of awareness and the deviation of beliefs and traditions and finally the bad economic situation of people experiencing poverty. This process showed under what conditions/substrates, interactions/strategies the impact of the water crisis in rural poverty worked, and also the role of spatial elements of the water crisis in rural poverty was depicted from the point of view of experts and key informants of the research of that region. The consequences that the water crisis caused in these areas are numerous; they mainly included the following: The traces of the water crisis in the poverty of environmental foundations, the traces of the water crisis in the poverty of rural culture, the traces of the water crisis in the poverty of social relations, traces of the water crisis in the poverty of the economic system and rural productivity, traces of the water crisis in institutional and managerial poverty, traces of the water crisis in the poverty of food security, traces of the water crisis in the poverty of the village communication system, traces of the water crisis in the poverty of the rural context. Conclusion In order to get out of the poverty trap created in Makhoonik village, it is suggested that the development programs presented to this village, along with a sense of respect for the people's culture, people's participation through education, and the creation of civil institutions consisting of villagers interested in technology and Today's innovations, be given attention and scientific action from the government and private sector. - Proper access to infrastructural capital such as telecommunication antennas, the internet, and accommodation opportunities for tourists entering this village, in other words, the possibility of communication and interaction between the residents of this village with the world outside the village environment in it, is necessary for positive cultural changes. - It is suggested that special attention be paid to the continuous presence of rural reformers from a non-touristic point of view. For this purpose and in the direction of implementing "practical rural development," it is suggested that the development and expansion of civil associations of the local community should be given special attention to slowly lead to the participation of the majority of the villagers through influence in the culture and brought about positive changes in the villagers in accordance with the current century. Acknowledgments This article is taken from the intra-university research project of Lorestan University with the title "Investigation of the effects of water crisis on rural poverty (case study: Makhoonik village, Sarbisheh, South Khorasan)". https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104039.html Objective: Entrepreneurship plays an important role in economic growth and development, and when combined with tourism, it can significantly contribute to social and economic development. The current research is a descriptive-survey type. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of creative entrepreneurship in sports tourism with the approach of creative destruction in Shahrekord city. Methods: The statistical population in this study includes 7391 residents of the villages in the Zayandehroud section of Saman city, who were sampled using targeted sampling (snowball technique). 40 entrepreneurs and 12 experts were selected. Data collection methods included interviews, observations, and researcher questionnaires. Data analysis involved descriptive and inferential sections to measure mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, factor analysis, regression, Pearson correlation, and non-parametric mean comparison tests using SPSS and Smart PLS software to explain the model and analyze the structural equations. Finally, the desired pattern was determined using the results and strategies extracted from the SWOC analysis. Results: The results indicated that the averages of 3.73, 3.91, and 3.27, respectively, from the perspectives of residents, tourists, and investments, suggest that the studied area is suitable for the expansion of creative destruction in tourism. Based on the analysis, the area is in the advanced product stage in terms of the creative destruction model. The current orientation leans towards a defensive strategy, but to reach the desired position, a leap strategy is necessary. Conclusions: Considering the area's location in the creative destruction model, there is potential for pursuing the development of creative entrepreneurship. Extended Abstract Introduction The important role of entrepreneurship and its integration with tourism has a significant impact on social and economic development. It is necessary to examine the state of creativity in the study area in order to achieve entrepreneurship through creativity and innovation in the field of tourism and take action towards entrepreneurship and development of the area. In this study, with the aim of achieving a dynamic and entrepreneurial rural ecosystem, the state of sports tourism in the area was examined from the perspective of the creative destruction model with a focus on sports tourism. Methodology The present study is a descriptive-survey study. This study is applied in terms of its purpose and is a descriptive-survey study. The study examines the relationship between creative destruction of tourism and entrepreneurship in the development of creative sports tourism at three levels (residents of the study area, tourists, and experts). The statistical population consists of 7391 residents of villages in Zayandeh-Rood district of Saman county. The research sample size of 40 and 31 people were selected from entrepreneurs and experts, respectively. Data were collected through interviews, observations, and questionnaires. Data analysis was performed in two parts: descriptive and inferential. SPSS and Smart PLS software were used to measure and compare non-parametric mean values and tests to explain the model and analyze structural equations. Finally, using the results and strategies extracted from SWOC analysis, the desired pattern was determined. Results and discussion Finally, using the results and strategies extracted from SWOC analysis, the desired pattern was determined. Based on the results of this research, the studied area is in the advanced commodity stage of the creative destruction model, which, considering the existing potentials, is increasing day by day in the number of domestic and foreign tourists. The main orientation in the current situation is towards a defensive strategy, but to achieve the desired position, a leap strategy needs to be adopted. Extended Abstract Introduction The important role of entrepreneurship and its integration with tourism has a significant impact on social and economic development. It is necessary to examine the state of creativity in the study area in order to achieve entrepreneurship through creativity and innovation in the field of tourism and take action towards entrepreneurship and development of the area. In this study, with the aim of achieving a dynamic and entrepreneurial rural ecosystem, the state of sports tourism in the area was examined from the perspective of the creative destruction model with a focus on sports tourism. Methodology The present study is a descriptive-survey study. This study is applied in terms of its purpose and is a descriptive-survey study. The study examines the relationship between creative destruction of tourism and entrepreneurship in the development of creative sports tourism at three levels (residents of the study area, tourists, and experts). The statistical population consists of 7391 residents of villages in Zayandeh-Rood district of Saman county. The research sample size of 40 and 31 people were selected from entrepreneurs and experts, respectively. Data were collected through interviews, observations, and questionnaires. Data analysis was performed in two parts: descriptive and inferential. SPSS and Smart PLS software were used to measure and compare non-parametric mean values and tests to explain the model and analyze structural equations. Finally, using the results and strategies extracted from SWOC analysis, the desired pattern was determined. Results and discussion Finally, using the results and strategies extracted from SWOC analysis, the desired pattern was determined. Based on the results of this research, the studied area is in the advanced commodity stage of the creative destruction model, which, considering the existing potentials, is increasing day by day in the number of domestic and foreign tourists. The main orientation in the current situation is towards a defensive strategy, but to achieve the desired position, a leap strategy needs to be adopted. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104040.html Extended Abstract Introduction An assessment of current conditions in rural areas shows that, despite the considerable potential of these regions and women’s demonstrated ability to harness such capacities for entrepreneurial activity, structural, cultural, and institutional constraints continue to obstruct the realization of women’s full capabilities. Constraints such as limited access to financial resources, inadequate specialized training, restrictive social norms, and underdeveloped infrastructure have collectively produced an unfavorable environment for rural women’s entrepreneurship. Gender stereotypes, inequitable divisions of labor, and the dual burden of household and economic responsibilities expose rural women to challenges such as diminished self-confidence, low risk tolerance, and restricted access to resources within male-dominated environments. Marivan County, the study area, suffers from structural and economic weaknesses stemming from geographical isolation and centralized national planning, factors that have exacerbated unemployment and poverty among rural women. Against this backdrop, the present study seeks to identify the barriers hindering the development of rural women’s entrepreneurship and to examine the strategies they employ to cope with these challenges. The main research questions are: 1. What factors account for the underdevelopment of rural women’s entrepreneurship in the region? 2. Which key conditions are necessary for improving the entrepreneurial environment? 3. What strategies do rural women adopt to adapt to unfavorable conditions? Methodology This study is applied in purpose and adopts a descriptive–analytical design, employing both documentary (library-based) and survey approaches for data collection. Theoretical data were drawn from documentary sources, whereas empirical data were collected through survey methods. The spatial scope encompasses the rural settlements of Marivan County, and the temporal scope corresponds to the second half of the 2024–2025. The statistical population comprised women from 12,083 rural households across 149 villages. Based on Cochran’s formula, a sample of 320 rural women was calculated. Sampling was conducted in two stages: first through stratification and then through random selection across villages and rural districts. Research instruments included a researcher-designed Likert-scale questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Instrument validity was assessed and confirmed through expert review by faculty members, local elites, officials, and entrepreneurship specialists. The reliability of the questionnaire, assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.82, indicating an acceptable level of internal consistency. Results and Discussion The study identified eight major barriers to the development of rural women’s entrepreneurship: (1) weaknesses in management and planning systems (e.g., neglect of women in resource allocation, absence of a comprehensive rural development plan); (2) structural barriers (low competitiveness, lack of processing industries); (3) inadequate infrastructure (limited access to electricity, internet, and transportation); (4) weak economic networking (poor integration with larger markets); (5) socio-cultural constraints (gender-based division of labor, family resistance); (6) educational deficiencies (limited entrepreneurship counseling); (7) financial constraints (difficulty obtaining loans, lack of microfinance funds); and (8) individual barriers (low risk tolerance, weak self-confidence). Path analysis indicated that weak development management and planning (factor loading = 0/633) and an unfavorable business environment (0/459) were the most influential determinants of adverse entrepreneurial conditions. Moreover, environmental factors (total loading = 0/465) exerted a stronger influence than individual factors (0/292). Regarding coping strategies, the most common included daily wage labor on farms (impact coefficient = 0/720), selling metal assets and gold (0/385), migration (0/296), and, to a lesser extent, marriage and homemaking (0/191). Overall, the findings suggest that advancing rural women’s entrepreneurship requires systemic management strategies that simultaneously address environmental factors (e.g., infrastructure, access to finance) and individual factors (e.g., education, self-confidence). Weaknesses in development planning, as the root cause of these challenges, have undermined the effectiveness of supportive policies. The coping strategies adopted by women—such as migration or selling assets—are not only unsustainable but also heighten their economic and social vulnerability. The study underscores the need to acknowledge rural women as key agents of sustainable development and cautions that neglecting this issue will perpetuate cycles of poverty and gender inequality. Conclusion By examining the barriers to rural women’s entrepreneurship in Marivan County, this study shows that a combination of structural, environmental, and individual constraints has produced an unfavorable entrepreneurial environment for women. Weak management and ineffective development planning—together with inadequate infrastructure, financial limitations, and entrenched patriarchal norms—have undermined the emergence of a sustainable entrepreneurial ecosystem. The coping strategies adopted by women—such as daily wage labor, asset liquidation, and migration—while offering short-term relief from poverty, ultimately deepen cycles of deprivation and gender inequality rather than enhancing economic agency. These findings underscore the urgency of revising rural development policies by prioritizing women’s empowerment, strengthening supportive networks, and expanding access to resources. Without structural reforms in planning systems and transformations in societal attitudes, the realization of sustainable rural development goals will remain unattainable. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104041.html Floods inflict significant damage in Golestan Province each year, making it one of the most flood-prone regions in the country. Between 1991 and 2007, several destructive floods struck the villages within the Gorganrood watershed, leaving rural areas highly vulnerable and causing extensive damage to physical structures, particularly housing, roads, public facilities, and agricultural and garden lands. Despite the awareness of local managers and villagers regarding flood risks, there remains a noticeable lack of cooperation and attention within the rural community toward adhering to safe river boundaries, construction regulations, and the use of durable, resilient structures. This issue primarily stems from reactive and hasty decision-making in the management of unexpected events. Rather than implementing strategies that enhance the knowledge, awareness, and preparedness of the community to manage flood risks and prevent disasters, authorities have often relied on a vulnerability-reduction approach focused narrowly on retrofitting housing and infrastructure, typically on a limited scale. In contrast, a resilience-based approach emphasizes not only the physical dimensions of rural communities—such as housing, roads, and infrastructure—but also the environmental, social, economic, and institutional dimensions. This study focuses specifically on the institutional dimension of rural communities, emphasizing a contemporary resilience-based approach. Accordingly, the research addresses two primary questions: • What factors influence the institutional resilience of rural settlements? • What is the current level of institutional resilience in the studied rural settlements? Methodology This study is applied in purpose and employs a descriptive-analytical methodology. Data were collected using a combination of library research and field surveys. The study population comprised residents of the villages of Mohammad Aleq, Salaq Yalghi, Yalmeh Salian, Dogonchi, Qara Qileh, and Charqoli, totaling 3,876 households. A sample of 350 households was determined using Cochran’s formula. Stratified sampling was employed, with the number of respondents from each village proportional to its population. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire. The reliability of the questionnaire was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and the composite reliability coefficient (CR). As reported in the findings section, both Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability values indicate that the questionnaire demonstrated adequate reliability. Questionnaire validity was established in two stages: first, face and content validity were confirmed through expert evaluation; second, discriminant validity was verified using the average variance extracted (AVE) index. Results and Discussion The results indicate that the studied settlements exhibit a low level of institutional resilience, with Salaq Yalghi village performing relatively better than the others, recording an overall average score of 2.89. The low institutional resilience observed in the villages can be attributed to several factors: limited financial and technical incentives from governmental and local authorities to prepare for social risks, low community participation in decision-making, inadequate responsiveness of service and aid institutions during disasters, limited satisfaction among residents with crisis management performance and service delivery, and insufficient responsiveness and loan provision by banks in the aftermath of natural disasters, including floods. The study also highlights a positive and significant effect of place attachment on institutional resilience, with a path coefficient of 0.239. This indicates that higher levels of place attachment create more favorable conditions for enhancing institutional resilience. The findings suggest that, following a disaster, a strong sense of belonging to a place supports the institutional resilience of rural settlements. Consequently, communities displaced by disasters often experience a diminished sense of belonging in their new locations. The study further demonstrates a positive and significant effect of social capital on institutional resilience, with a path coefficient of 0.656. These findings indicate that social capital plays a critical role in institutional resilience. Specifically, social networks, mutual trust, and cooperation within the community enhance the capacity of settlements to cope with and recover from shocks and crises. Conclusion To mitigate the impacts of natural hazards such as floods, it is crucial not only to enhance societal capacity for recovery but also to strengthen overall resilience systems. Accordingly, disaster planning and management strategies should shift from a traditional focus on vulnerability reduction toward empowering communities, enhancing societal capacities, and fostering resilience. This study aimed to assess the institutional resilience of rural settlements, one of the key dimensions of resilience, and to identify the factors that promote its enhancement. The findings revealed that the studied villages exhibit a low level of institutional resilience. Additionally, place attachment and social capital were found to exert positive and significant effects on institutional resilience. The path coefficients indicate that these two variables together account for 48.5% of the variance in institutional resilience.d shift from a traditional focus on vulnerability reduction toward empowering communities, enhancing societal capacities, and fostering resilience. This study aimed to assess the institutional resilience of rural settlements, one of the key dimensions of resilience, and to identify the factors that promote its enhancement. The findings revealed https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104064.html Extended Abstract Introduction Wetlands, as essential ecosystems, play a crucial role in community development and in enhancing environmental quality. These ecosystems are highly vulnerable to environmental changes and serve as vital resources for both human populations and wildlife. The first step toward wetland conservation is to understand the nature of human–environment interactions. This entails analyzing the impacts of human activities on these ecosystems, implementing appropriate conservation strategies, and educating local communities on the ecological significance of wetlands. Accordingly, the present study investigates farmers’ lived experiences to develop a deeper understanding of the reciprocal relationship between humans and wetlands and to clarify the responsibilities and actions required for the protection of the Bisheh Dalan Wetland. Methodology This study is applied in purpose, descriptive-analytical in approach, and qualitative in nature. The research began with a review of theoretical foundations related to the Bisheh Dalan Wetland in Lorestan Province, followed by a qualitative approach involving fieldwork to collect the lived experiences of local residents. The primary method of data collection was semi-structured interviews with local farmers who had direct experience with the wetland and were willing to share their perspectives. Purposive sampling was employed and continued until theoretical saturation was reached, yielding a total of 18 interviews. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for analysis using Colaizzi’s phenomenological method. The data were extracted, conceptualized, and coded through iterative readings, which enabled thematic categorization to illuminate various dimensions of the phenomenon under investigation.This thematic analysis is grounded in phenomenological epistemology and aims to uncover the essence of participants’ lived experiences. Ethical principles were strictly observed throughout the research, with particular attention to maintaining confidentiality and securing informed consent from all participants. Results The thematic analysis resulted in the identification of 631 significant statements, 689 conceptual codes, and 222 subcategories. These subcategories encompassed farmers’ experiences, definitions, memories, behaviors, and expectations related to the wetland and their broader environmental interactions. This classification was organized around five dimensions of farmers’ perceptions, grounded in a phenomenological framework.The findings indicated that participants recalled the former economic significance of the wetland for the region and perceived its natural condition as more favorable in the past. At present, a marked decline in conservation efforts and attention was observed. Participants recalled past experiences of more effective water management and maintenance practices, which had contributed to the ecological health of the wetland. In contrast, inadequate contemporary management has diminished the utilization of wetland resources by local villagers. In terms of self-definitions, participants reported that their economic and livelihood conditions were more favorable in the past, whereas they currently face more adverse circumstances. Regarding expectations, participants expressed hope for the restoration and improvement of the wetland’s condition. Overall, villagers currently engage in less sustainable practices related to water extraction and land use compared to the past. Discussion and Conclusion Industrial development has significantly degraded ecosystems, placing environmental protection at the forefront of global priorities. Wetlands, in particular, demand sustainable management owing to their critical ecological functions. The findings indicate that despite the growing discourse around ecocentric perspectives, most farmers living near the Bisheh Dalan Wetland predominantly adopt an anthropocentric worldview. They tend to value the wetland chiefly for its economic utility, rather than recognizing its ecological significance. Despite Bisheh Dalan’s rich biodiversity, it faces multiple challenges, including inadequate conservation practices, ineffective water management, and unauthorized agricultural activities. Addressing these challenges requires strategic planning and active community engagement. Adherence to conservation principles and the implementation of sustainable water use practices are essential to maintaining ecological balance. Key strategies should encompass habitat restoration, environmental education, and the formulation of robust environmental policies. Promoting alternative and sustainable livelihoods may alleviate pressure on natural resources, while collaborative governance structures can foster deeper community involvement. Finally, integrating scientific research with indigenous and local knowledge systems can yield more effective and culturally appropriate conservation strategies that support long-term ecological sustainability. Funding This research received financial support from Yasouj University, which covered the doctoral dissertation expenses of the first author. Authors’ Contribution Author 1: Responsible for sample preparation, data collection, data analysis, and initial drafting of the manuscript. Author 2: Primary dissertation supervisor; contributed to research design, oversaw all stages of the study, and was involved in the revision, editing, and finalization of the manuscript. Author 3: Co-supervisor of the dissertation; contributed to the review and validation of findings and participated in manuscript revision and finalization. Author 4: Dissertation advisor; reviewed and revised the manuscript. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Vice-Chancellor for Education and Graduate Studies at Yasouj University for providing both financial and institutional support for this research. We also extend our appreciation to the peer reviewers and scientific advisors whose constructive feedback greatly contributed to improving the quality of this work. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104224.html Introduction Futures studies, an interdisciplinary field that emerged in the aftermath of World War II, provides innovative tools and methodological approaches to address the complexities and uncertainties inherent in anticipating the future. This approach enables organizations and communities to move beyond linear forecasting, facilitating the development of flexible, pluralistic scenarios that capture potential environmental and social transformations. Such considerations are particularly salient in the realm of rural development, which is confronted with significant challenges including climate change, population migration, and entrenched structural inequalities. Although a substantial body of research in Iran has explored the application of futures studies to rural development, these studies have frequently overlooked the active engagement of local stakeholders and have insufficiently considered the unique characteristics of deprived regions. This study seeks to address this gap by concentrating on Zirtang Abzar Village in Khuzestan Province. It aims to formulate practical, contextually appropriate strategies to alleviate deprivation and enhance quality of life in the area, employing futures studies and scenario planning methodologies, while incorporating the direct participation of local residents. Methodology This study employs a qualitative, interpretive-descriptive approach within the TAIDA futures studies framework, encompassing five primary stages. In the first stage, primary data and trends influencing rural development were gathered through fieldwork and 26 semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders. In the second stage, the collected data were categorized and analyzed using two complementary tools: PESTLE analysis to examine external factors and SWOT analysis to assess the village’s internal conditions, providing a comprehensive understanding of the current context. The third stage focused on scenario visualization and development. Through a dedicated stakeholder workshop employing the Lotus Blossom technique, innovative ideas for the village’s development were elicited and refined. In the fourth stage, the Delphi method, involving 11 experts, was employed to identify the most viable scenario and achieve consensus on the preferred option. Finally, in the fifth stage, a backcasting approach was used to delineate the necessary pathways and practical measures required to implement the selected scenario and realize the envisioned rural development objectives. The study area is Andika County, located in northeastern Khuzestan Province, which was officially designated as a county in 2009. With an estimated population of approximately 85,000 (2016 census) and over 595 villages, the county’s economy is predominantly based on agriculture and livestock, with the majority of residents belonging to the Bakhtiari Lur ethnic group. Despite substantial efforts by organizations such as the Barakat Foundation to mitigate deprivation through multiple infrastructure initiatives, Zirtang Abzar Village continues to confront significant challenges related to infrastructure and livelihoods. Owing to its remote location and dispersed population, the village experiences substantial deficits in sustainable access to drinking water, gas, and modern agricultural technologies, rendering it an underdeveloped area. Results and discussion This study was undertaken to design development-oriented and deprivation-reducing scenarios for Zirtang Abzar Village, applying the TAIDA futures studies framework. The findings indicate that enhancing living standards and economic conditions in the area necessitates integrated attention to social, cultural, economic, and environmental dimensions. Moreover, the active involvement of stakeholders in problem identification, situational analysis, and solution generation proved pivotal in shaping realistic scenarios. During the design phase, four potential scenarios were formulated: handicrafts development (with an emphasis on “Shirdang” weaving), medicinal agriculture, insect farming, and indigenous tourism (ecotourism). These scenarios were subsequently evaluated through two consecutive Delphi rounds, engaging 15 local and regional experts. Ultimately, the handicrafts development scenario emerged as the top priority, attaining both the highest evaluation score and the broadest expert consensus. This strategy was widely endorsed owing to its congruence with the cultural traditions and skill sets of the local community—particularly women—as well as its feasibility given existing resources. Conclusion This study demonstrates that integrating qualitative, participatory, and futures-oriented approaches can yield an effective framework for decision-making in rural development. The active engagement of local experts, systematic data analysis, and the application of innovative methods facilitated the development of scenarios characterized by both feasibility and broad social acceptance. Despite these achievements, a key challenge was the limited availability of up-to-date statistical data, particularly in the economic and environmental domains. To address this gap, alternative approaches were employed, including group analysis, specialized interviews, and the triangulation of qualitative data. In conclusion, the findings of this study provide a foundation for formulating policies and designing local development programs in comparable regions. The successful implementation of the selected scenario could generate positive outcomes, including the mobilization of local capacities, the empowerment of communities, the reduction of inequalities, and overall improvements in quality of life. Furthermore, this study offers a strategic framework that can inform the design of analogous development initiatives in other deprived villages across the country. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_104225.html Extended Abstract Introduction Event tourism is one of the rapidly growing forms of tourism that attracts numerous travelers. Driven by cultural, historical, and traditional resources, as well as significant social and cultural values, this type of tourism makes substantial contributions at the national and regional levels. It plays a vital role in the sustainable economic and social development of communities. On the other hand, women—comprising half of the global population and serving as key drivers of a country's economic and social progress—can play an important role in improving the economic and social conditions of rural families. Therefore, empowering women across various domains becomes essential for enabling them to assume more prominent roles in society. Event tourism, in particular, can serve as an effective mechanism for strengthening, elevating, and empowering women, especially within rural communities. The issue of rural women’s empowerment, both in general and specifically within Semnan Province, is of fundamental importance. This community holds a significant share of the country’s agricultural production. Moreover, products made by rural women in the province often fall victim to the greed and profit motives of intermediaries. Additionally, research indicates that Semnan Province has a notable capacity for handicraft production, which could be harnessed through event tourism—particularly by eliminating intermediaries—to significantly impact the rural women’s economy. Such initiatives could provide valuable opportunities for growth and empowerment. Despite the presence of diverse tourism events in Semnan Province—including the Sangsar Clan Festival in Mahdishahr, Muharram ceremonies in Majan, the Zaghbor Festival in Qaleh Bāala village, and agricultural events such as the Eyvanaki Pomegranate Festival, the Shahmirzad Walnut Festival, and the Damghan Pistachio Festival—there is a conspicuous lack of comprehensive studies examining the relationship between event tourism and the empowerment of rural women. Since rural women actively contribute to national and local development—playing crucial roles in wealth, capital, and welfare creation—this gap highlights the need for further investigation. Therefore, this study aims to examine the question: Does event tourism impact the empowerment of rural women in Semnan Province? Methodology This research falls under the category of applied studies, and it employs a descriptive-correlational approach. Data were collected through two methods: library research and fieldwork. The sampling method was single-stage cluster sampling, and the data collection tool was a questionnaire. The statistical population consisted of all women in Semnan Province who participated in and played operational roles in tourism events within the region. The sample size was set at 384 individuals, determined using a formula for estimating sample size from an infinite population. Data analysis was performed using quantitative methods, including both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics analyzed demographic data via Excel, while inferential statistics examined the collected data with each research question tested through appropriate statistical tests. Linear regression analysis was used to test hypotheses, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient assessed reliability—all facilitated by SPSS software. Results and discussion The results of the data analysis in this study indicate that the perceived benefits of event tourism have the greatest impact on psychological empowerment, followed by social empowerment, and finally on economic empowerment of women in rural areas. Conversely, perceived costs of event tourism exert the most influence on social empowerment, followed by psychological empowerment, and ultimately on the economic empowerment of rural women. Overall, based on the findings of this research, the development of tourism—particularly event tourism—plays a highly significant role in empowering women, especially rural women, across various social, cultural, psychological, and economic dimensions. The analysis of the current study reveals that event tourism offers numerous benefits, including creating employment opportunities, fostering trade and entrepreneurship, improving the social environment, enhancing the overall quality of life, and significantly boosting the economic conditions of individuals and the region. Conclusion The findings indicate that the perceived benefits and costs of event tourism have a direct and significant impact on the economic, social, and psychological empowerment of rural women. Tourism is one of the avenues that enhances women's participation in social, cultural, and economic activities. The results of this study confirm that women's empowerment is realized across various dimensions, including economic, social-cultural, political, psychological, familial, legal, and rights-based aspects. Improving women's empowerment in these areas is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development, particularly in rural areas where women traditionally participate in household economic activities and thus require greater attention. In this context, it can be said that tourism projects, especially local events and festivals, empower women. In other words, the development of local events not only contributes to regional tourism growth but also plays a crucial role in the sustainability of the local community from economic, social, and cultural perspectives. It is considered one of the essential strategies for the fair distribution of tourism benefits and advantages between women and men in a given region. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_105292.html Introduction Since the victory of the Islamic Revolution, poverty alleviation has consistently been a central concern of both policymakers and community-based volunteer organizations, as deprivation is regarded as a multidimensional socio-economic and cultural challenge. In response, several national institutions, including “Jihad Sazandegi,” “Basij Sazandegi,” and the “Barakat” Foundation, were established to combat this pervasive condition and promote inclusive development. Empirical evidence suggests that these institutions have achieved notable success in mitigating deprivation and fostering development across disadvantaged urban, rural, and peri-urban regions. Nevertheless, despite extensive efforts and substantial resource allocations, various forms of deprivation remain evident across the country. Although numerous anti-poverty programs have been launched, the outcomes have fallen short of expectations, with the return on investment remaining disproportionately low relative to the scale of financial inputs. Among these institutions, the Barakat Foundation, a subsidiary of the Execution of “Imam Khomeini’s Order”, has centered its deprivation-reduction initiatives on employment generation through the implementation of an integrated model for the development of deprived regions, particularly within rural contexts. Accordingly, this study undertakes a critical examination of selected “Barakat” Foundation projects in Razavi Khorasan Province. The initial section presents the theoretical foundations of the research, followed by an explanation of the methodological approach, data collection procedures, and analytical techniques employed. Subsequent sections present the empirical findings structured around the analysis of SWOT, while the concluding part advances a set of policy-oriented strategies derived from the study’s outcomes. Methodology This study adopts an applied orientation in its purpose and employs a qualitative research design in terms of methodology. Multiple data collection methods were utilized to obtain comprehensive information on the “Barakat” Foundation’s rural development projects in Razavi Khorasan Province. The collected data were initially analyzed through a thematic analysis approach. Following the recording and transcription of the interviews, the textual data were imported into specialized software for systematic coding and categorization. The analytical process involved primary coding of interview statements, followed by secondary coding to refine and classify emerging categories and patterns. Finally, the derived propositions were analyzed using MAXQDA 2020 software, through which appropriate strategic insights and recommendations were formulated. Results and Discussion According to the internal factors matrix, the highest-ranked strengths of the Barakat Foundation’s programs are twofold: (1) the prioritization of project quality over quantity relative to other implementing agencies, and (2) the presence of an internal research and development unit that integrates both internal and external studies to ensure continuous monitoring and adaptive improvement of projects. In contrast, the lowest-rated strength pertains to the limited transparency and inadequate public communication of the Foundation’s operational guidelines and program details. Regarding weaknesses, the tendency to favor short-term, quick-yield projects, particularly the prioritization of the “Sahab” scheme over the “Aseman” program, represents the most significant internal limitation. Conversely, the least critical weakness relates to facilitators’ partial dissatisfaction with remuneration mechanisms, employment security, and work-related logistics such as travel distances. The composite internal factor index was calculated at 2.81, indicating that the strengths of the Barakat Foundation’s initiatives outweigh their weaknesses in advancing poverty alleviation objectives. With respect to external factors, the most prominent opportunity is the growing motivation for work and entrepreneurship among local communities, inspired by exposure to successful employment models. The least-ranked opportunity concerns the potential for collaborative partnerships between the Foundation and other organizations, including “Basij Sazandegi”. Among the identified threats, the greatest challenge lies in the difficulty of monitoring and evaluating the performance of loan recipients. Conversely, the least critical threat pertains to applicants’ resistance to learning and innovation, compounded by weak entrepreneurial motivation, limited collective work culture, and low risk tolerance in business development. The composite external factor index was determined to be 2.18, positioning the Foundation’s programs within the “threat-dominant” quadrant of the strategic analysis matrix. Accordingly, the strategic orientation of future programs should prioritize leveraging internal strengths while effectively managing external threats, consistent with a competitive–diversification (ST) strategy aimed at sustaining and scaling the Foundation’s impact in rural poverty alleviation and employment generation. Conclusion As previously discussed, assessing the performance of institutions engaged in poverty alleviation, both in quantitative and qualitative terms, is crucial for improving the allocation of public resources and strengthening the overall effectiveness of national initiatives aimed at reducing poverty and deprivation. The findings revealed that the “Barakat” Foundation, as one of the leading institutions in poverty alleviation, maintains a relatively strong internal position in terms of its organizational capacity and structural characteristics. However, the implementation of its development programs is confronted by significant external and environmental threats. In other words, the strategic positioning of the “Barakat” Foundation’s initiatives corresponds to the Strength–Threat (ST) quadrant within the SWOT analytical framework. Accordingly, the principal strategic orientation aligns with a competitive approach, designed to consolidate existing strengths while mitigating or counteracting external threats. Although strategic recommendations can be formulated for all possible positioning scenarios, the majority are tailored to the Foundation’s current Strength–Threat (ST) condition, summarized as follows: 1. Establishing a coordinated division of labor among institutions responsible for rural poverty alleviation within a comprehensive national framework; 2. Integrating more effective indicators into the eligibility assessment of applicants; 3. Prioritizing value-chain completion and market development; and 4. Strengthening beneficiary capacities through pre-loan empowerment initiatives. Collectively, these strategies are intended to enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and developmental impact of the “Barakat” Foundation’s rural employment programs, thereby contributing more effectively to the national agenda for poverty alleviation and inclusive rural growth. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_105293.html Examining the Economic Empowerment Model of Home-Based Enterprises: Field Evidence from the ACECR Abstract Objective: Economic empowerment, particularly through the establishment and expansion of home-based enterprises in Iran, constitutes one of the key strategies for fostering local and rural development. Accordingly, this study aims to examine the model of economic empowerment underpinning home-based businesses, drawing on field-based experiences. Methods: The research employed a case study design, utilizing semi-structured interviews and purposive sampling across ten organizational units of the Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR). Results: Thematic analysis of the qualitative data revealed four overarching themes that constitute the core dimensions of the empowerment model: (1) ease of business initiation, (2) ease of implementation, (3) sustainability, and (4) evaluation of home-based enterprises. In addition, several organizing themes emerged, including the improvement of procedures for launching and expanding home businesses, the provision of effective advisory services, and the influence of individual and social characteristics on business success or failure. Conclusion: Existing models of economic empowerment for home-based businesses in Iran face several structural and procedural challenges. Based on the identified core themes, this study proposes a revised framework aimed at transforming the current empowerment model through nine operational phases. Keywords: Economic empowerment; Home-based businesses; Empowerment model; Local development; ACECR.   Extended Abstract Introduction Recent statistics from the United States indicate that around 52% of all small businesses are home-based, with a substantial proportion founded and managed by mid-career professionals. Home-based enterprises constitute a vital component of entrepreneurial activity and contribute significantly to broader processes of economic development. In many developed economies, policy frameworks supporting home-based enterprises have been in place for several decades, during which these ventures have come to account for a substantial share of national economic activity. Small enterprises are generally defined as those employing fewer than 50 people, whereas microenterprises refer to firms with between one and nine employees. The principal aim of this study is to analyze the economic empowerment model for home-based businesses, informed by field experiences derived from the Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR). To address this objective, two key research questions were examined through semi-structured interviews with project experts: (1) What are the main weaknesses and challenges inherent in the existing empowerment model for home-based businesses? and (2) What strategies could facilitate the transformation of this model? Although extensive research has addressed small and home-based enterprises, relatively few studies have examined the barriers to implementing empowerment models within organizational frameworks such as that of ACECR. Previous research has primarily concentrated on individual entrepreneurs or business managers, whereas the present study focuses on ACECR’s university-led initiatives that are embedded within broader home-based business programs. Methodology This study adopted a qualitative case study design. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with project managers and field implementers across multiple provinces, complemented by document analysis. The study population comprised all home-based business empowerment projects implemented by the ACECR across the country. Using purposive sampling, ten fully implemented and collaborative ACECR units were selected, including those located in Khuzestan, South Khorasan, Ardabil, and Qazvin provinces, as well as the Al-Zahra and Allameh Tabataba’i Jihad University units. Results and Discussion Thematic analysis of the qualitative data yielded two major categories of findings. Part I: Weaknesses and Challenges of the Empowerment Model. Four overarching themes were identified: (1) ease of business initiation, (2) ease of implementation, (3) sustainability, and (4) evaluation of home-based enterprises. These overarching themes were informed by ten organizing themes, including the reform of startup procedures, enhancement of advisory and counseling services, engagement of technical experts, facilitation of micro-investment initiatives, and reduction of bureaucratic constraints. In total, twenty-one basic themes were distilled from twenty-seven underlying conceptual categories. For instance, facilitating business startups requires revising registration and job-aptitude forms, diversifying counseling and advisory services, and giving greater consideration to the personal characteristics of entrepreneurs. Part II: Solutions for Transformation. In response to the identified challenges, a four-stage transformation framework is proposed: (1) facilitating the initiation of home-based businesses (Phases 1–3); (2) improving operational processes (Phases 4–6); (3) strengthening business sustainability (Phases 7–8); and (4) establishing systematic mechanisms for evaluation and monitoring (Phase 9). Conclusion The expansion of home-based enterprises can function as a vital pathway toward economic empowerment, positioning households and their human capital as key assets that enhance both individual livelihoods and broader societal welfare. In the Iranian context, the National Home Business Development Plan, implemented by the ACECR in its mediating and facilitating role, constitutes a systematic initiative aimed at expanding the home-based enterprise sector. Nevertheless, the findings reveal that the process remains complex and protracted, necessitating structural and procedural reforms to facilitate more equitable access to the benefits of economic growth. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_105341.html This article examines the evolution and underlying nature of rural management in Iran across the pre- and post-revolutionary periods. A major part of the process of rural change has occurred via planned changes accompanied with the government initiatives. The core of the initiatives was rural management. The purpose of this article is to investigate the evolution rural management and its nature. Based on the two dominant perspectives in the literature, it seeks to understand whether the changes in rural management followed a developmental goal or did the goal of controlling rural areas and maintaining the existing rural order. For this purpose, the development of rural management was studied, in two periods, including before and after the land reforms and after the revolution, by using available sources and documents. The article concludes that the government-directed changes regarding rural management has, had remarkable impact, so that we can say that today the villages have access to basic services and modern life facilities more than in the past,, however this does not mean that all villages benefited equally from these changes.. Consequently, the underdevelopment of the country's rural areas remained as an unsolved problem. Meanwhile, the government managed to gradually develop its influence and control in the villages through various (developmental) bureaucracies. Hence, the, the very government has been the main beneficiary of rural management developments over the decades of rural interventions. Introduction In developing societies, the vertical and horizontal integration of local communities, including the rural ones, in the broader (national) society was often pursued through planned changes along with the creation of communicational infrastructures and bureaucracies. In rural society, this was reflected in the in the change of rural management by the government. Apparently, the goal of all initiatives was to speed up the process of development including development of villages. However, to what extent these government interventions have been accompanied by rural development in practice, is the subject of the present study? Given the fact that, although the research in the rural field is notable, but mostly are limited to a specific period of history and program, therefore, for a more comprehensive understanding of the subject, it tries to fill some existing gaps by examining the evolutionary process of rural management, and especially to this subject. Research method This study investigates the evolution of rural governance and its nature before and after the revolution. Therefore, the general approach of this article can be historical and the method used is to analyze the trend in the context of historical developments by using library and documentary data. So, based on available literature, the research data has been analyzed before and after the revolution. The data and documents are those that are either written by researchers or official reports and occasionally studies that have been conducted and published by researchers, institutions or related organizations. As a result, in order to investigate the evolution of rural governance, documents available in published works, including books, articles, researches, laws, regulations and approvals concerned to village administration, have been used as the basis for review and analysis. Results and discussion Based on the historical developments, three periods can be distinguished. The first period includes right before the land reforms, which provides a historical perspective of the evolution of the rural society from the traditional form to the modern era. Before the land reforms, the dominant the owners controlled the economic and rural social life. According to some scholars, including Katouzian (1973), it was the "social root of the authoritarian governance. According to Farazmand, many administrative reforms were from the 19th century was formed according to the unity of the interests of the monarchy and owners, without making fundamental reforms in villages. During this period, Kodkhoda represented the government and the lord entity in villages. The second period begins with land reforms providing a significant basis for government penetration in the village through various official agents under the supervision of different ministries. Contrary to some scholars such as Halliday (1979), these reforms were successful in achieving political goals, but failed to provide favorable social and economic conditions. The findings are more in agreement with researchers such as Katoozian, that these measures did not change rural poverty. The third period is concerned to the post-revolution era, which was affected by the revolution atmosphere, characterizing a reactive natured initiatives towards the pre-revolutionary measures, which was reflected in the broad demands for fundamental changes in the administrative and political system of the country. This period experienced the tendencies of bureaucratization, bureaucratization, and proliferation of often parallel and occasionally unsustainable bureaucracies, which has also been arisen in the field of rural management. Generally, it should be said that there has been no significant change in any of developmental issues. Classic poverty indicators show no radical changes occurred in village life (Shakoori, 2019). Limited environmental capacity one low investment levels , rural-urban differentials still exists, indicating that rural measures condemned to be ineffective (Mahdavi, 2017: 142). Conclusion Rural governance refers to organizing rural material and human resources effectively often by the by the government. Regarding two main approaches on the relationship between the government and the bureaucracy, this study concludes that what continued/realized as consequence of various rural interventions (via programs and reforms) was the control and influence of the government in the village. As result, this study confirmed that the critical approach prevailed in practice in rural developments in Iran, particularly in rural governance realm and so, the main beneficiary of rural reforms was the government itself. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_105450.html Several studies have been conducted in the area of extension service delivery and farmers with disabilities. There is, however, a lack of in-depth investigation conducted on the dynamics of communication between farmers with disabilities and agricultural extension agents, specifically in the Ghanaian context, limiting the development of targeted interventions and support mechanisms. This gap hinders the effective dissemination of vital information, resources, and assistance needed by farmers with disabilities to enhance their productivity, livelihoods, and overall well-being. Therefore, there is an urgent need for research to fill this gap and enhance inclusivity and support for farmers with disabilities in Ghana's agricultural extension services. The researcher conducted a nationwide study on farmers with disabilities in all sixteen regions of Ghana to acquire full and impartial knowledge of the issues of this group. The research employed a deductive approach, a quantitative methodology, a survey technique with a cross-sectional time horizon, and a positivist philosophy. The Ghana Statistical Service, GSS (2020) conducted an agricultural census in 2017/2018 and recorded 122,209 individuals as farmers with disabilities (FWD) from the sixteen regions of Ghana. These made up the study's population. Using the sample size formular by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), 386 respondents were determined. By requesting an exhaustive list of all farmers with disabilities from the Department of Social Welfare and the Department of Agriculture in the Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in each of Ghana's sixteen regions, the researcher was able to use the simple random sampling technique to choose the sample. To address important areas on issues of communication in extension services for farmers with disabilities, a well-designed survey instrument was established. The data collection tool underwent comprehensive validation from University of South Africa agricultural extension specialists. A group of knowledgeable enumerators and sign-language interpreters were tasked with collecting data from farmers who had speech disabilities for this study. Three enumerators, three sign language interpreters, and the researchers made up the crew. The enumerators were chosen based on their vast experience in delivering agricultural extension services, ability to interact in local languages, academic experience, and their previous interactions with the populations we were studying. We organized a three-day training session to help them familiarise with the questionnaire and the goals of the study. This was held before the data-gathering process. To make sure that every team member fully understood the questionnaire, researchers led this session. This meeting guaranteed the consistency of the data gathered and helped establish a common data collection methodology. With a three-month duration for data gathering, every one of Ghana's sixteen regions was thoroughly covered. The methodical strategy, which included baseline testing and focused training, ensured the validity of the study's conclusions as well as the reliability of the collected data. The statistical programme SPSS Version 28, intended for use by social scientists, was used to analyse the data. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. In describing the communication between farmers with disabilities and extension agents, we used a five point likert scale, ranging from very poor (1), poor (2), average (3), good (4) to very good (5) to measure respondents’ opinion. We used frequency and percentage to summarise the results. In analysing the source of agricultural information for farmers with disabilities, we used frequency and percentage to analyse it. The factors influencing farmers with disabilities' communication with agricultural extension agents were examined using the one-way ANOVA test. The one-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test is a statistical method used to compare the means of three or more groups to determine if there are statistically significant differences between them. In the context of examining the factors influencing communication between farmers with disabilities and agricultural extension agents, the one-way ANOVA test was used to analyse whether there are significant differences in communication based on different factors. We first identified the factors that may influence communication between farmers with disabilities and agricultural extension agents. These factors were age, gender, education, type of disability, source disability, head of household, FBO membership, non-farm activity, and experience in farming (Gomda et al., 2021). Once the factors were identified, we categorised the respondents into different groups based on their communication experiences with extension agents. This data included information on the communication between farmers with disabilities and agricultural extension agents. With the data collected, we then used the one-way ANOVA test to analyse whether there are significant differences in communication between the different groups of farmers. The rationale for using the ANOVA test on the variables lies in its ability to assess whether there are statistically significant differences in means among three or more groups. In the context of analysing variables such as communication quality between Farmers with Disabilities (FWDs) and Agricultural Agents, the ANOVA test allowed us to determine if there are significant differences in ratings across the different categories (very poor, poor, average, good, and very good). The ANOVA test calculated an F-statistic, which compared the variation between groups to the variation within groups. If the F-statistic is greater than expected by chance, it indicates that there are significant differences in communication between the groups. Results show that extension officers are the primary source of information for farmers with disabilities (18%). The communication between FWDs and agricultural agents reveals a rather less than satisfactory experience (57%). Age, gender, type and source of disability, FBO membership, non-farm activity, and experience in farming all emerge as significant factors shaping communication dynamics between farmers with disabilities and extension agents. Extension officers should receive specialised training on inclusive communication strategies and disability awareness so that they will be equipped with the knowledge and skills to effectively engage with FWDs, accommodate their diverse needs, and provide tailored assistance and information. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_106716.html Abstract Today, social entrepreneurship is known as an effective and sustainable solution to reduce social problems and develop countries. In order to create an environment for the development of social entrepreneurship and to solve social problems in society, Iran needs an effective model in this field, especially in less developed areas. The purpose of this research is to develop a policy model for the development of social entrepreneurship in rural areas in provinces of Kermanshah, Kordestan and Ilam. This research was conducted using a qualitative approach and using the grounded theory method. The participants in the study included 24 key activists in the field of the study, who were selected using the purposive sampling. In total, 37 concepts were identified from the interviews, which were finally compiled into 10 core categories. According to the research findings, a paradigm model of social entrepreneurship development policy in Kermanshah, Kordestan and Ilam provinces was developed and presented, which includes causal conditions (including the category of skill development), contextual conditions (including the category of examining the existing state of entrepreneurial culture and its improvement), intervening conditions (including the class of culture building, public awareness and adaptation to the needs of society and institutionalization), strategies (including four classes of cultural measures, motivational measures, social measures and educational measures) and consequences (including reducing social problems and increasing wealth creation). Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Social Entrepreneurship, Rural Development, Policy Making, Grounded Theory. 1. Introduction Considering the increasing importance and growth of social entrepreneurship as one of the variables influencing the state of the economy and social well-being, there is still a lack of scientific articles and texts that examine the various government regulatory mechanisms that are implemented at different levels of the government to stimulate social entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship ecosystems. Also, several studies have been conducted in the field of social entrepreneurship, but the role of the government in social entrepreneurship research has not been discussed and scrutinized. Government support for the development of social entrepreneurship and encouraging the creation of social enterprises is very important, several countries such as China have addressed this important issue and have clearly applied its results in the social field, but in our country, we still have to deal with the issue of entrepreneurship policy. Issues such as how the government helps social entrepreneurship in order to create value for different stakeholders, as well as the type of government intervention and regulatory mechanisms have not yet been answered. In recent decades, governments have seriously encouraged entrepreneurship. Governments by compiling strategies, policies and operational programs in order to expand entrepreneurial spirit and behavior, training and counseling, creating a suitable environment for the activity of entrepreneurs in various economic and social fields, removing obstacles, establishing communication and cooperation between them and facilitating their access to global markets in providing the necessary conditions and facilities to start the activity of entrepreneurs play an effective role in the development of entrepreneurship (Lönnström, 2020). 2. Methodology This research is an applied one because it has been performed with the intention of practical application of knowledge and findings to fulfill the issues and problems within provinces of Kermanshah, Kordistan and Ilam. The method of research is qualitative. Because this research desires to create a new model and to develop the body of knowledge about the policy making pattern for the development of social entrepreneurship, its purpose is exploration. Data collection was performed through semi-structured interviews and a grounded theory was applied to analyze the collected data. The statistical population of the research include 24 social entrepreneurs which are operating in provinces of Kermanshah, Kordestan and Ilam. 3. Results Results of the current research show that in social entrepreneurship, the category of causal conditions includes skill development with four concepts of "creative force trinity", "efficient human force", "operationalization of education" and "commercialization of education". Findings of the research show that one of the effective factors on the development of social entrepreneurship is skill development, which indicate that training the workforce to develop skills and personal characteristics to successfully carry out activities can help the growth and development of social entrepreneurship. 4. Discussion In the present study, the intervening factors included two categories: "cultivation and public awareness" and "adaptation to society's needs and institutionalization" where the category "culture and public awareness" includes the concepts of "respecting social entrepreneurs", "trust of political and social institutions in social entrepreneurs", "informing awareness", "attracting society's trust" and "modelling social entrepreneurs" and the category "compliance with society's needs and institutionalization" includes the concepts of "identifying service deficiencies", "responding to society's needs", "relation between theories and the world reality" and "strengthening the spirit of social entrepreneurship". In other words, for the development of social entrepreneurship, culture-building and awareness-raising, as well as meeting the needs of society and institutionalization should be prioritized in policy-making, and in this way, the field of social entrepreneurship development at the community level should be provided. 5. Conclusion The current research has introduced a new and complete set of policy making patterns for the development of social entrepreneurship that can be applied to develop entrepreneurs in the conditions of market stagnation and turbulence. Human resource training is of great importance in the development of entrepreneurship. The training of creative, expert, entrepreneurial, and innovative human resources should be considered as one of the goals of entrepreneurship education in different schools of the country. Entrepreneurship training and development of creative forces can lead to huge changes in the world of development and innovation. This directly and indirectly affects sustainable economic development. Entrepreneurship in this direction can provide the possibility of achieving independence and self-sufficiency in decision-making for societies and nations. Therefore, entrepreneurship training and development of creative forces in schools and organizations is of great importance because it can help the development of entrepreneurship and economy. Conflict of Interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_106723.html Extended Abstract Introduction Development goals of tourist destinations are based on factors such as participation (considering the views of tourism stakeholders in designing new products), equity (ensuring access for all employees to rural welfare facilities), and responsiveness in the tourism marketing process (product, price, place, promotion, physical evidence, planning). Factors such as the lack of up-to-date information technology in tourism infrastructure, the presence of intermediaries, the lack of skills, expertise, and knowledge among employees, laws and regulations, unstable product prices due to sanctions, and cultural differences between local communities and tourists are identified as root causes of the problem in the first research. This indicates a weakness in spatial planning for rural tourism marketing. Therefore, the research questions can be formulated as: Which indicators of spatial planning for rural tourism marketing are more important, and what is the status of the studied villages in terms of these indicators of spatial planning for rural tourism marketing? Methodology This research was conducted using a descriptive-survey approach. The statistical population of the study comprises 59 tourist villages located in Territorial Region 6 (Tehran, Alborz, and Qom provinces). Utilizing the census method, 13 villages prioritized for tourism, as approved by the government and proposed by the handicrafts industry, were ultimately selected. In the initial phase of achieving the indicators, the dimensions explaining spatial planning and tourism marketing were identified based on global literature. Subsequently, the frequency of these dimensions was determined using global literature spanning the period from 2001 to 2025. The final dimensions explaining spatial planning and tourism marketing were then refined based on previous studies, incorporating the marketing mix for tourism marketing. In the next step, the final indicators were defined, and expert opinions, along with input from stakeholders and tourists, were employed to assess the importance of these indicators and to localize and operationalize them within the studied rural areas. For statistical analysis of the questionnaires completed by experts, stakeholders, and tourists, one-way analysis of variance, Gabriel test, and one-sample T-test were utilized to determine which indicators explaining spatial planning for rural tourism marketing were deemed most significant. These tools also helped assess the current status of the indicators explaining spatial planning for rural tourism marketing. Additionally, the grey relational analysis test was employed to rank the villages based on the status of the explanatory indicators. Results and discussion Indicators explaining spatial planning for rural tourism marketing in the region show that their importance level is not equal. To determine the importance level of the indicators explaining spatial planning for rural tourism marketing in Territorial Region 6 (Tehran, Alborz, and Qom provinces), the Gabriel test was used, which revealed a significant difference between the relevant indicators. Specifically, the promotion index, with an overall average of 2.92, and the product and place indices, with an average of 2.88, are more important than other spatial planning indicators for rural tourism marketing. The results of this part of the research are consistent with the studies of (Setegn & Japee, 2025; Arici & Koseoglu, 2025; Oka & Subadra, 2024, etc.). According to the results of the one-sample T-test, it can be concluded that all tourist villages in the region are in an unfavorable condition in terms of the studied indicators. Among the studied indicators, place, promotion, and price, with an average of less than 2 (theoretical median), are in a more unfavorable condition compared to other studied indicators in the region. The results of this part of the research align with the studies of (Gonzalez, 2025; Mododi Arkhodi, 2024; Marpaung et al., 2024, etc.). Finally, to prioritize the aforementioned indicators for assessing the status of spatial planning for rural tourism marketing in the region, the grey relational analysis technique was used. The results showed that the village of Sangaan, due to its proximity to the metropolitan area of Tehran, plain location, existence of more natural attractions, population increase, or the village of Anjile in Qom, due to information dissemination and introduction of tourist attractions, the presence of knowledgeable and trained people in tourism, the quality of the appearance of infrastructure and service spaces, etc., are in a more favorable condition compared to the village of Dastgerd and other similar villages. Conclusion Rural tourism marketing mix is a comprehensive and strategic approach to achieving sustainable development, which seeks to balance economic, social, and environmental goals on the one hand and the changing needs of the tourism market on the other. This approach, relying on spatial planning indicators, aims to improve service quality, shape a unique experience for tourists, and create tangible benefits for local communities. Therefore, spatial planning for rural tourism marketing is a strategic necessity for optimal use of existing capacities, balanced distribution of tourist flows, and reducing concentration on saturated destinations. In this regard, actions such as developing a transparent and multi-level pricing system, a system for responding to tourist complaints and feedback, providing financial incentives for quality services, designing integrated tourism packages, etc., are among the key requirements for improving the status of rural tourism. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_106724.html Introduction: Compared to urban centers, rural areas suffer from limited infrastructure and opportunities, particularly in education. Ensuring equitable access to education for both girls and boys in these regions, especially in remote, mountainous, and nomadic settlements, remains a critical challenge in achieving sustainable development and educational equity. Compared to urban centers, rural areas suffer from limited infrastructure and opportunities, particularly in education. Ensuring equitable access to education for both girls and boys in these regions, especially in remote, mountainous, and nomadic settlements, remains a critical challenge in achieving sustainable development and educational equity. Girls in such areas are particularly vulnerable to school dropout due to cultural, economic, geographical, and infrastructural factors. Given their pivotal role in child-rearing and significant contributions to productive activities, basic education for women in these underserved regions is paramount. School dropout, a global educational challenge, prematurely thrusts adolescents into adult roles. According to data from the Statistical Center of Iran and the Ministry of Education for the 2022-2023 academic year, over 911,000 children were out of school, and more than 279,000 students dropped out nationwide. Sistan and Baluchestan Province ranked highest in both out-of-school children and dropout rates. Nikshahr County, particularly its rural and nomadic areas, is no exception and faces compounded challenges. This study aims to identify and analyze the factors contributing to school dropout among girls in the rural and nomadic settlements of Dehestan (Rural District), located in the central district of Nikshahr County. The central research question is: What factors and causes influence school dropout among girls in the study area, and which are the most significant? Methodology:This research is applied for a purpose and is descriptive-analytical in nature. The study population comprises all girls under 30 years of age residing in the nomadic villages of Mahban Dehestan, central district of Nikshahr County, totaling 1,077 individuals. The sample includes 19 nomadic villages and 64 girls who dropped out of school between 2011 and 2023. The sample size was determined using a census-based method. Data were collected through library research and field studies, utilizing a researcher-designed questionnaire. Three experts confirmed the questionnaire’s validity, and its reliability was calculated with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.834 using SPSS software. Data analysis employed descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, mean) and inferential statistics (univariate t-test and Friedman test). Results and discussion: The findings indicate that all examined factors significantly influence girls’ school dropout, with a significance level below 0.05. The Friedman test confirms significant differences among these factors. The mean ranks from the Friedman test reveal that physical distance (mean rank: 9.31) and accessibility (mean rank: 8.88) are the most influential factors, driven by the mountainous terrain, long distances to urban centers, poor road conditions, limited access to transportation, and high transportation costs. Access to educational facilities (mean rank: 8.16) ranks next, due to the absence of primary schools in some villages, the lack of secondary schools in most villages, and insufficient transportation facilities for students. Household economic status (mean rank: 7.05) and family literacy levels (mean rank: 6.35) also significantly influence. The impact of household economy on dropout is primarily attributed to topographical constraints, limited water and land resources, traditional gardening and livestock practices, degraded pastures, geographical isolation, poor connectivity, and low value-added agricultural activities. The influence of family literacy is primarily rooted in parental illiteracy. Early marriage (mean rank: 4.05), educational environment behaviors (mean rank: 3.37), and family events (mean rank: 3.06) follow in significance. Early marriage contributes to dropout due to traditional customs and ethnic prejudices intertwined with religious beliefs, such as concerns about family honor and fears of daughters remaining unmarried, often leading to family pressure or encouragement for early marriage. Among educational environment behaviors, the presence of male teachers and their interactions with female students have a greater impact, as many families, due to cultural and religious preferences, favor girls’ education in single-sex schools with female teachers after primary school, a facility unavailable in the study area. Among family events, paternal drug addiction significantly affects dropout, as it destabilizes household finances and management, leaving mothers, typically homemakers, unable to support their children’s education due to financial constraints. Gender discrimination within families (mean rank: 2.36) and traditional beliefs (mean rank: 2.42) have the least impact. Some parents, driven by ethnic and religious concerns about family honor, oppose girls’ continued education. Gender discrimination often stems from beliefs that girls’ education is unnecessary due to perceived threats to their chastity outside the home, though broader gender disparities are minimal. Conclusion: The study concludes that physical distance, accessibility, access to educational facilities, household economic status, family literacy levels, early marriage, educational environment behaviors, family events, traditional beliefs, and gender discrimination within families are, in descending order, the most significant factors influencing girls’ school dropout in the study area. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_106725.html Extended Abstract Introduction Rivers have historically functioned as fundamental elements in shaping civilizations, human settlements, and socio-ecological systems, playing a central role in sustaining natural resources, supporting local economies, and preserving cultural identities. Beyond their ecological functions, rivers facilitate social cohesion, traditional practices, recreational opportunities, and educational engagement with the natural environment. They provide essential provisioning services such as water for irrigation and livestock, regulating services including flood control and microclimate regulation, and supporting services like habitat provision and soil stabilization, all of which are crucial for rural communities. Over centuries, human settlements have been organized along river courses, creating intricate relationships between the environment and cultural heritage. In recent decades, these critical roles have been increasingly threatened due to climate change, water scarcity, unsustainable land-use practices, and insufficient integrated management strategies. Such pressures have led to substantial declines in ecosystem services, degradation of habitats, and the erosion of cultural connections between communities and rivers. The Sojas-River in Khodabandeh County, Zanjan Province, exemplifies these challenges, where reduced water flows, altered riparian habitats, and environmental stressors compromise both the river’s ecological integrity and its intangible cultural heritage. Understanding these socio-ecological interactions is essential for designing strategies that simultaneously conserve biodiversity, enhance ecosystem functionality, and maintain cultural identity. Methodology This study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques within a descriptive-analytical framework. Data collection involved 18 semi-structured interviews with local residents, environmental experts, and cultural activists, alongside direct field observations, a structured survey of 24 questions, and comprehensive archival research. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic coding, including open, axial, and selective coding, to identify recurrent themes and interconnections between ecological and cultural factors. Quantitative survey responses were evaluated descriptively and comparatively using SPSS and Excel, providing statistical validation of perceptions and attitudes. Triangulation of multiple data sources—field observations, documentary records, and participatory feedback—ensured the reliability and validity of the findings. The integration of diverse methodological approaches enabled a holistic assessment of the river’s ecological status, its cultural significance, and the potential for sustainable restoration. This approach also allowed for capturing the perceptions of local communities regarding the role of the river in maintaining social cohesion, environmental education, and heritage preservation, thereby highlighting the interdependence of ecological health and cultural vitality. Results and discussion Findings indicate a dramatic 60–70% decline in the annual flow of the Sojas-River over the past decade, accompanied by considerable degradation of provisioning services such as irrigation, regulating services including flood mitigation and microclimate regulation, and supporting services like habitat provision and biodiversity conservation. These ecological impairments threaten the long-term sustainability of both natural systems and agricultural livelihoods. Despite these declines, cultural ecosystem services have remained resilient, playing a vital role in sustaining local identity, traditional rituals, aesthetic appreciation, and environmental education. The river continues to provide social and cultural benefits that contribute to community cohesion and heritage continuity. Survey analysis revealed that 84% of participants perceive the river as integral to village identity, while 68% recognize the benefits of culturally regenerative tourism initiatives in supporting ecological restoration and local livelihoods. The integration of ecological, cultural, and governance dimensions emerged as a pivotal factor for successful river restoration, emphasizing the interconnection of natural resource management, participatory governance, and heritage preservation. The study demonstrates that cultural revitalization can serve as a primary driver for ecological rehabilitation, reinforcing the principles of regenerative tourism and providing actionable insights for sustainable rural development. Conclusion In addition, the findings underscore that the integration of ecosystem services with culturally rooted forms of regenerative tourism fosters a dynamic platform in which environmental processes and local knowledge systems mutually reinforce one another. This synergy highlights the importance of recognizing rivers not merely as hydrological entities but as living socio-ecological corridors shaped by memory, identity, and everyday practices. The Sojas River exemplifies how landscape degradation can be reversed when restoration strategies embrace cultural continuity, interpretive storytelling, and community-led heritage practices alongside ecological rehabilitation. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that biocultural restoration can create long-term value by generating diversified livelihood opportunities, strengthening place attachment, and enhancing local governance capacity. Such an approach aligns with global discourses on nature-based solutions and adaptive co-management, while also responding to the contextual needs of Iran’s rural landscapes. Ultimately, the proposed model serves as both a theoretical contribution and a practical roadmap, offering policymakers, planners, and local stakeholders a holistic strategy for restoring degraded river systems in a way that maintains ecological integrity, reinforces cultural resilience, and ensures intergenerational well-being. Moreover, the research emphasizes that sustainable river restoration must prioritize the interdependence between ecological processes and community stewardship, acknowledging that the success of environmental interventions is inseparable from local engagement and cultural relevance. By situating restoration within a broader socio-ecological narrative, the model highlights the essential roles of storytelling, traditional ecological knowledge, and place-based rituals in revitalizing degraded landscapes. These components not only deepen public understanding but also cultivate a shared sense of responsibility that strengthens collective action. As rural communities become active participants rather than passive beneficiaries, the restoration process evolves into a long-term collaborative endeavor capable of addressing emerging environmental challenges while fortifying cultural continuity across generations. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_106726.html 1. Introduction At the beginning of the 21st century, developing countries continue to face numerous challenges in the path toward development, particularly rural development. Previous policies and strategies, due to their urban-centric and technocratic nature, have failed to adequately address the needs of rural areas. As a result, these regions have experienced intensified poverty, migration, declining living standards, and infrastructural deficiencies. Consequently, there has been a growing emphasis on the need to revise development approaches and leverage local capacities—especially through tourism—as part of innovative development strategies. Tourism, as one of the fastest-growing sectors of the global economy, has played a significant role in GDP growth, employment generation, and income distribution. It connects various rural activities such as agriculture, handicrafts, and local services, thereby fostering economic diversification and revitalizing rural communities. Beyond enhancing local livelihoods and reducing rural-to-urban migration, tourism also facilitates the flow of capital, culture, and information, contributing to the formation of economic and social capital. In this context, tourism entrepreneurship—particularly rural tourism entrepreneurship—has emerged as a key driver of endogenous development. It provides a framework for utilizing local potentials to generate and equitably distribute wealth. Thus, rural tourism development is considered an effective strategy for addressing rural underdevelopment and strengthening the economic and social foundations of rural areas. This study focuses on the tourism-receiving villages within the tourism catchment area of Mashhad, Iran. As Mashhad has evolved into the country’s second-largest metropolis and a major pilgrimage-tourism hub, the increasing influx of tourists has expanded its tourism influence into neighboring rural areas. These villages, now integrated into Mashhad’s metropolitan system, possess high tourism potential. If managed properly, this potential can foster tourism entrepreneurship, employment, infrastructure improvement, and a reduction in migration to the city. The primary aim of this research is to examine the role of tourism flows in stimulating tourism entrepreneurship in this region. 2. Methodology This applied research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach and utilizes library-documentary methods for data collection. To assess tourism entrepreneurship, standardized indicators from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) were adapted through localization by 15 academic experts, resulting in 36 items across 14 indicators grouped into three dimensions. Data were collected using a five-point Likert scale questionnaire administered to rural entrepreneurs. Tourism flows were analyzed across three dimensions—tourist, commodity, and capital flows—using eight indicators derived from institutional data and stakeholder interviews. The reliability of the research instruments was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient above 0.7. Data analysis employed one-sample t-tests, Pearson and Spearman correlations, linear regression, and GIS-based spatial models such as MEREC, MARCOS, and Natural Breaks. The tourism catchment area of Mashhad was selected for its high rural tourism potential. The spatial extent of the catchment was determined using a modified Rupert model and visualized in ArcGIS. Out of 167 tourism villages, 22 with significant tourism attractions were selected as the study sample. 3. Findings In the first phase, one-sample t-tests (with a theoretical mean of 3) were conducted to evaluate the levels of tourism entrepreneurship. Results indicated that the mean values for all entrepreneurship indicators were significantly above the theoretical average, suggesting a positive influence of tourism flows on entrepreneurship in the study area. Among the indicators, "entrepreneurial orientation" was identified as the most influential factor by the entrepreneurs. The average tourism flow was measured at 2.69, placing it at a moderate level. Correlation analysis revealed significant positive relationships between tourism flows and all three dimensions of entrepreneurship: orientation, capability, and willingness. Regression analysis showed that tourism flows are a strong predictor of tourism entrepreneurship (R=0.81, R²=0.64). However, exceptions such as the villages of Pivehjan and Ozghad demonstrated strong entrepreneurial performance despite weaker tourism flows—largely attributed to their unique natural resources. Conversely, Darbehesht village, despite a stronger tourism flow, exhibited weaker entrepreneurial outcomes due to structural and cultural barriers. Spatial analysis using MEREC and MARCOS models identified Miami village as having the highest and Andorakh the lowest tourism entrepreneurship levels. Spatial classification via the Natural Breaks method in GIS revealed Miami, Radkan, and Pivehjan to be in the most favorable entrepreneurial positions. Further correlation between the MARCOS model and spatial-physical factors indicated strong or very strong relationships between tourism entrepreneurship and variables such as precipitation, elevation, education level, youth population, infrastructure, hospitality services, and accessibility. These factors play critical roles in the success of tourism entrepreneurship. 4. Discussion and Conclusion Tourism entrepreneurship plays a pivotal role in the sustainable development of rural areas, significantly contributing to economic, social, and environmental advancement. This study, focusing on the villages within Mashhad's tourism catchment area, confirmed that tourism flows significantly influence the dynamism of tourism entrepreneurship, with "entrepreneurial orientation" being the most impactful factor. The findings highlight a strong correlation (R=0.81) between tourism flows and entrepreneurship indicators. However, regional disparities exist: while some villages with fewer visitors achieved strong outcomes through intelligent use of local resources, others with high visitor numbers underperformed due to cultural or structural limitations. The MEREC and MARCOS spatial models further emphasized that entrepreneurial success is influenced by a combination of environmental, infrastructural, and social factors. Overall, the sustainable development of tourism entrepreneurship demands an integrated approach—one that aligns tourism flows with economic infrastructure, education, innovation, and policy support. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_106727.html Introduction Handicrafts, as indigenous and culturally rooted industries, have long been recognized as powerful tools for promoting employment, empowering communities, and reinforcing local economies, particularly in rural regions. In developing countries where limited capital represents a major constraint on production, handicrafts—requiring relatively low investment and relying on abundant labor—can provide sustainable alternatives for balanced development. In Iran, handicrafts represent not only a significant cultural and historical legacy but also a strategic economic sector, with 299 officially registered crafts generating considerable annual revenue. Among these crafts, Zilou weaving holds a unique position. Meybod, the historical hub of this textile art, was designated as the “World City of Zilou” by the World Crafts Council in 2018. However, despite its historical prestige and cultural symbolism, Zilou weaving has faced gradual decline due to industrial substitutes, weak institutional support, and declining interest among younger generations. This study addresses the critical question: What strategies, from the perspective of Pioneer Zilou Weavers, can revitalize this traditional craft and strengthen its role in local sustainable development? By focusing on their experiences, the research aims to bridge gaps in the existing literature, which has largely focused on descriptive or historical aspects of Zilou but has rarely examined its economic dimensions and practical revitalization strategies. Methodology The research employed a qualitative design within the interpretive paradigm, emphasizing the lived experiences and tacit knowledge of Pioneer Zilou Weavers. Data collection relied on in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 26 master weavers from Yazd Province, selected through theoretical sampling combined with purposive and snowball approaches. Inclusion criteria required more than 30 years of weaving experience, ensuring deep professional expertise and contextual familiarity. The participants, with an average age of 77 and nearly six decades of practice, represented diverse localities within the region. Interviews were transcribed and systematically coded using MAXQDA software. Data analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s six-phase thematic analysis, encompassing familiarization with the data, initial coding, theme identification, review, definition, and final reporting. To ensure trustworthiness, the study adopted Lincoln and Guba’s four criteria: credibility (through participant validation of preliminary findings), transferability (via purposive sampling of highly experienced artisans), dependability (achieved by intercoder agreement with Cohen’s Kappa coefficient of 0.83), and confirmability (through full audit trails documenting coding and theme development). Results and discussion Findings revealed two major thematic axes: (1) economic and social transformations of Zilou weaving, and (2) strategies for revitalizing its economic role. 1. Economic and Social Transformations Zilou weaving has undergone profound shifts over the past decades. Once flourishing due to reliance on local cotton, traditional skills, and a stable domestic and export market, the craft entered into decline with the emergence of machine-made carpets and synthetic floor coverings. These substitutes offered cheaper prices, higher variety, and broader availability, eroding Zilou’s competitiveness. As a result, household income from weaving dropped significantly, forcing many artisans to seek alternative livelihoods. Workforce composition also changed dramatically. While older generations began weaving from childhood and transferred skills intergenerationally, younger cohorts increasingly abandoned the craft in favor of formal education and modern professions with higher returns. This generational discontinuity weakened the reproduction of human capital in Zilou weaving. Furthermore, despite its historical prestige, weaving is now often perceived as arduous and poorly remunerated work, with limited appeal as a full-time occupation. From a social perspective, Zilou weaving was traditionally embedded in household economies, often involving the collective participation of family members, including women. It fostered intergenerational learning, social cohesion, and a sense of pride and cultural identity. However, declining demand and economic hardship have diminished its social vibrancy, although Pioneer Zilou Weavers still regard it as a meaningful cultural practice. 2. Strategies for Revitalization Pioneer Zilou Weavers proposed several interconnected strategies to restore the craft’s economic sustainability and link it to local development: • Institutional Support: Stronger government facilitation, provision of social insurance for weavers, stabilization of raw material prices, and targeted promotional campaigns. • Market Development: Establishing dedicated sales centers, fostering local branding, and promoting exports to reach international markets. • Product Innovation: Introducing diversity in colors and motifs while preserving authenticity, highlighting health-related advantages of cotton-based Zilou (e.g., its non-allergenic and eco-friendly qualities). • Cultural Heritage Preservation: Documenting masterworks in museums, organizing exhibitions, recognizing master artisans, and encouraging intergenerational transmission of skills. These strategies align with international literature emphasizing handicrafts as cultural capital, vehicles for empowerment, and contributors to creative economies. The study highlights the urgent need for balancing industrial growth in regions like Meybod with the preservation of traditional industries, given the social and environmental costs of unchecked industrialization. Conclusion This research demonstrates that while Zilou weaving faces structural challenges—including the erosion of competitive advantage, declining youth participation, and weak institutional backing—it retains considerable potential for revitalization. The proposed strategies, grounded in the lived experiences of Pioneer Zilou Weavers, emphasize effective connections between production and markets, brand-based exploitation of global recognition, institutional support, and policies oriented toward heritage preservation, sustainable development, and social capital reproduction. Particularly in rural contexts, where limited capital remains the most serious constraint on production, these measures acquire heightened significance. By integrating economic revitalization with cultural continuity, Zilou weaving can once again serve as both a livelihood strategy and a cornerstone of local sustainable development. Funding This article is derived from the corresponding author’s thesis, which was carried out with financial support from the Iran Small Industries and Industries Parks Organization (ISIPO) – Yazd Province. Authors’ Contribution The first and second authors had the greatest contribution to the conceptualization, research design, and writing of the article. The third author mainly contributed to the methodology. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We thank the Pioneer Zilou Weavers for their invaluable cooperation and the academic colleagues who provided constructive feedback. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_106728.html Introduction Today, the development of economic activities in rural areas is considered one of the most constructive strategies for the economic, social, and cultural development of underprivileged regions (Ellis, 2005). Many people in rural areas face a shortage of job opportunities, declining incomes, significant population growth, high unemployment rates, and multidimensional poverty (Shaiq et al., 2022), which places them at risk of livelihood insecurity. Diversifying economic activities in rural environments can be a dynamic and adaptive process in response to threats and opportunities, allowing farmers to manage risks (Shaiq et al., 2024; Varmazyari et al., 2018; Kassie, 2016; Baniasadi, Mehrjouee, & Varmazyari, 2013), sustain their income and livelihoods, and improve their living standards (Gebreyesus, 2018). This study aims to identify the main requirements for diversifying rural economic activities among rural households in Kunduz Province and seeks to answer the following question: What are the key requirements for rural households to engage in economic diversification? Methodology The present study employed a quantitative approach and utilized a non-experimental (survey) strategy. The statistical population studied consisted of the heads of rural households in Kunduz Province. To determine the sample size, G*Power software was used. A multi-stage sampling method was employed in this research. In the first stage, four districts (Goltapeh, Aliabad, Khanabad, and Chahardara) were selected from ten administrative units in Kunduz Province using cluster sampling, and then four villages were chosen from each of the selected districts. The primary data collection tool was a questionnaire. For data analysis, in addition to descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation, the coefficient of variation was used to prioritize the items presented by respondents. Since, in the real world, all factors and variables influencing a phenomenon typically coexist and do not operate independently, exploratory factor analysis was used to identify the most effective factors and variables. It should be noted that factor analysis is a dependent method in which all variables are considered simultaneously (Kalantari, 2018). Results and discussion The results related to descriptive statistics indicated that over 72% of respondents were in the age groups of under 35 years and between 35 to 48 years. However, it can be inferred that they are on the threshold of middle age. Therefore, it can be expected that the potential for developing and promoting rural businesses to enhance their income is feasible. Additionally, the results showed that over 34% of the farmers studied were illiterate in terms of educational level. Meanwhile, nearly 40% of them had literacy skills limited to reading and writing. Thus, promotional training to familiarize them with rural economic activities and to promote these activities for income generation is essential. It is necessary to use appropriate methods for improving learning, enhancing knowledge, motivation, and skills, considering their educational levels. Notably, out of a sample of 188 individuals, only 33.5% had participated in training programs offered by relevant authorities. Therefore, it seems that to improve the income-generating capabilities of rural residents and address issues related to starting and conducting economic activities, relevant institutions must adopt necessary measures in the areas of education and empowerment. Especially since exploratory factor analysis also showed that empowerment is among the three key factors for economic diversification. The results from the coefficient of variation also indicated that the highest consensus was related to the requirements for professional training of the workforce, increased interaction and cooperation among rural residents, introducing suitable business opportunities to them, and encouraging them to start and engage in new businesses and use new technologies. In fact, the results of the coefficient of variation also align with previous findings of this study regarding the importance of empowerment. In this regard, Esfouh and colleagues (2017) reached similar results, arguing that factors like entrepreneurship training and skill development increase the participation of smallholder farmers in non-agricultural activities. Moreover, the factors derived from the exploratory factor analysis indicated that 60% of the variance in the requirements for diversifying the rural economy was explained by five main factors: "infrastructural and input," "identification of business opportunities," "empowerment," "marketing," and "financial requirements," which somewhat aligns with the findings of Danso-Abbeam (2020), Mahendra (2007), and Asfaw et al. (2017). Conclusion The findings indicate that essential requirements such as infrastructure development, empowerment, promoting technologies, and financial facilities are crucial for the development of rural economic activities. Undoubtedly, communities that engage in economic diversification are less vulnerable to economic and climatic changes compared to those reliant on primary sectors like agriculture. Considering that over 70% of Afghanistan's population lives in rural areas, strengthening rural businesses can significantly contribute to the development of these regions. The insights gained from this study, especially in light of the lack of sufficient empirical literature in Afghanistan, can serve as a valuable guide for stakeholders and policymakers involved in rural development. By addressing these fundamental requirements, it is possible to establish a resilient and prosperous rural economy in Kunduz and similar areas. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_106840.html Corporate social responsibility (CSR), as a mechanism for integrating social and environmental considerations into business operations, holds considerable potential for advancing local and regional development. However, its effectiveness depends on alignment with the real needs of communities, institutional coherence, and transparency in practice. In Iran, despite recent policy efforts to formalize this domain, a persistent gap remains between regulatory frameworks and on-the-ground performance. Adopting a qualitative approach and employing thematic analysis, this study evaluates the performance of economic enterprises in the field of CSR and examines the effectiveness of existing policies and regulations in steering CSR activities toward local development. Research data were collected and analyzed through a review of official documents and semi-structured interviews with 25 corporate managers, government officials, and local community representatives.The findings reveal that CSR activities in Iran face multilayered challenges at cognitive, procedural, and structural levels. At the cognitive level, the foremost and most fundamental challenge is conceptual weakness and a flawed understanding of CSR, to the extent that a large proportion of senior managers equate CSR with charitable work and almsgiving, viewing it not as a developmental investment but as a legal compulsion to avoid penalties. This reductionist outlook is compounded by the absence of specialized CSR units in many enterprises and a general lack of awareness of its long-term benefits for the firm itself, including mitigating social risks and strengthening legitimacy. At the procedural level, four major challenges were identified. First is the misalignment between CSR projects and spatial planning documents and regional development plans; in the sense that most initiatives are designed without reference to comprehensive county-level plans and without an analysis of the relative advantages of each region, and their prioritization is driven more by managerial preferences and short-term pressures than by actual needs. Second is the lack of institutional integration and the fragmented implementation of initiatives; enterprises operating within the same geographical area act without coordination with one another, and their connection with local executive bodies—including governorates, district offices, and village councils—remains weak and disjointed, particularly when these bodies are excluded from the decision-making process. The third procedural challenge is the superficial engagement of local stakeholders and rightsholders in project definition; needs assessments are often perfunctory and non-participatory, local entrepreneurs and economic actors are not involved in designing interventions, and no formal mechanisms exist for receiving complaints and suggestions from the local population. Fourth is the excessive concentration on school construction, which, although generally perceived as a positive undertaking, is rooted in a charitable outlook and has led to the neglect of other vital areas such as productive employment, economic infrastructure, and livelihood enhancement.At the structural level, the findings bring to light three fundamental challenges. First are the legal and structural constraints that limit the regulatory scope predominantly to state-owned enterprises, leaving large private-sector firms outside the purview of the regulations; moreover, budget inflexibility and prescriptive ceilings have precluded the reallocation of resources under emergency conditions. Second is the absence of independent oversight mechanisms, which has paved the way for symbolic practices and greenwashing, whereby certain enterprises use CSR projects to conceal environmental pollution or to burnish their organizational image, and, in the absence of independent evaluative bodies, reporting remains inflated and unverifiable. The third structural challenge is the lack of a long-term vision and sustainable planning, as a result of which CSR priorities shift with changes in management, and the absence of overarching policy documents and key performance indicators has pushed decision-making toward ad hoc and reactive approaches.At a deeper layer, the findings expose an internal contradiction within existing policies that systematically undermines the shift toward development-oriented CSR. On the one hand, Clause 1 of Article 2 of the "CSR Regulation for State-Managed Companies" stipulates that the primary priority is "accepting responsibility for adverse impacts"—that is, negative responsibility. On the other hand, the clauses of Article 5, by prescribing mandatory quotas for school construction, effectively steer enterprises toward a form of compulsory charity. This contradiction has resulted in the marginalization of compensation for loss of life, financial damage, and livelihood harm caused by industrial activities, while positive charitable interventions are prioritized over negative responsibility—a situation that has upset the necessary balance between the corrective and developmental roles of CSR. Overall, this study demonstrates that as long as the prevailing understanding among executive bodies and enterprises remains confined to viewing CSR as "the performance of a stereotypical duty" rather than "the fulfillment of a strategic responsibility toward territorial development," the resources expended in this sphere will not lead to sustainable local and regional development. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107083.html Analysis of the Functional Transparency of Local Managers and Its Role in Increasing Participation and Satisfaction of Villagers with Managers’ Performance (Study Area: Arabkhaneh Rural District, Sardaran District, Nehbandan County) Introduction Rural areas throughout their history have always been subjected to various forms of management, ranging from traditional methods to modern systems. However, experience has shown that what can help rural communities achieve sustainable development goals goes beyond classical management—it is a concept known as good rural governance; a concept that in recent decades has gained a prominent place in global development literature. Good governance means the effective administration of public affairs based on principles such as legitimacy, justice, transparency, accountability, and public participation. It is essentially the product of comprehensive interaction and cooperation between the government and the local community. In our country, due to the lack of an efficient model for good rural governance, most programs are designed and implemented in a top-down manner. This not only reduces public participation but also leads to consequences such as weakness in the implementation of justice, lack of transparency, absence of public oversight, and reduced accountability of managers. Under these conditions, the transition from traditional management to rural governance is an inevitable necessity for achieving sustainable development. One of the key components of good governance is transparency, which can improve the quality of rural management by reducing corruption, enhancing accountability, increasing awareness, and strengthening social participation. The importance of this issue is especially pronounced in deprived and peripheral areas of the country. Arabkhaneh Rural District, located in the Sardaran District of Nehbandan County, is a prime example of such areas facing challenges like dry climatic conditions, scattered population, dependence on traditional agriculture and livestock, and limited access to development infrastructures. Accordingly, this study seeks to answer the following questions: What is the level of functional transparency of rural managers in the study area from the villagers’ perspective? What factors increase the transparency of rural managers’ activities, and to what extent does this affect villagers’ satisfaction with their performance and participation in village-related activities? Research Methodology This study is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive-analytical in terms of nature and method. To achieve the research objectives, data were collected through two main approaches: first, documentary and library studies to review the theoretical and research background related to transparency, good governance, and rural management; and second, field studies where the main tool was a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire included items in three main sections: the level of functional transparency of managers, social participation of villagers, and their satisfaction with local managers’ performance. Items were designed based on a five-point Likert scale (from very low to very high). The statistical population comprised villages with rural councils in Arabkhaneh Rural District. Based on research criteria, ten villages were selected as samples to cover geographic diversity and ensure the presence of an official local management institution (rural council) in the sample community. The sample size was estimated at 163 people using Cochran’s formula and was proportionally distributed among the villages. The questionnaire’s validity was confirmed by experts and professors in geography and rural planning, and its reliability was confirmed using Cronbach’s alpha. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS software. Descriptive statistics involved the use of mean and frequency percentage, and inferential statistics included the one-sample T-test to assess variable status, Pearson correlation to examine relationships between variables, and multiple regression to analyze the impact of transparency dimensions on satisfaction and participation. Additionally, part of the questionnaire was open-ended to extract qualitative dimensions of non-transparency. Discussion and Findings The study findings showed that the level of functional transparency of local managers in Arabkhaneh Rural District is below average, with a mean score of 2.21 compared to the theoretical midpoint of 3, indicating a serious weakness in this area. Also, the average satisfaction with managers’ performance (2.20) and villagers’ participation (2.33) were lower than expected. Pearson correlation results indicated a positive and significant relationship between transparency and satisfaction (0.830), as well as between transparency and participation (0.684); meaning that increasing transparency can directly lead to higher satisfaction and participation levels. Conversely, “clarity of information” and “financial transparency” did not show significant effects, and in some cases, clarity of information had a negative effect on participation. Qualitative analysis of villagers’ responses revealed six main categories of non-transparency: financial and credit weakness, lack of managerial experience and knowledge, lack of manager accountability, neglect of infrastructure services, irregular presence of managers in villages, and internal council conflicts. These results indicate that the issue of transparency in local management is multidimensional and, beyond information scarcity, the quality of presentation, accountability, institutional mechanisms, and social trust also play important roles. The findings align with previous national and international studies and emphasize the need to revise local management approaches. Conclusion This study showed that weak functional transparency of local managers in Arabkhaneh Rural District is the main factor reducing villagers’ satisfaction and social participation. Ultimately, this leads to weakening social capital and public distrust, posing a serious challenge to sustainable development. On the other hand, weaknesses in clarity of information and financial transparency indicate that merely providing reports is insufficient; the manner of presentation, simplicity of language, and oversight mechanisms must also be considered. Therefore, it is recommended that rural councils strengthen communication channels, publish regular and understandable reports, hold public meetings and Q&A sessions, and effectively use social networks to enhance transparency. Training local managers in participatory management and accountability can also play an effective role in improving their performance. From a macro-policy perspective. Ultimately, transparency is not only a managerial indicator but an essential necessity for achieving good governance and sustainable rural development. Attention to this issue in less privileged areas like Arabkhaneh can pave the way for future planning and serve as a foundation for increasing public trust and effective community participation in local affairs. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107151.html Recognition of the outstanding and unique values of rural architecture in the geographical area of Zagros and consequently Hamedan province is a wide and complex matter. The diversity of rural settlements in this geographical area and the connection that has been established over the years between the body of the village and the culture of its inhabitants with the geographical features of the area. In the formation of rural housing, two natural and human geographical factors play a key role. The diversity of rural settlements in this geographical area and the connection that has been established over the years between the body of the village and the culture of its inhabitants with the geographical features of the area. In the formation of rural housing, two natural and human geographical factors play a key role. Geographical factor means the relationship between man and nature, which itself is divided into two environmental and natural factors, the environmental factor is related to the climatic characteristics of the region and the natural factor refers to the characteristics of housing in the plains, mountains, foothills and coastal And the human factor plays a role in human-human relations in the environment in the form of cultural, social and economic characteristics. Understanding the influential factors and the need of villagers for the type of housing needed, as well as understanding the concepts and principles governing the formation of rural housing is one of the most important goals of research on villages. Recognition of the outstanding and unique values of rural architecture in the geographical area of Zagros and consequently Hamedan province is a wide and complex matter. The diversity of rural settlements in this geographical area and the connection that has been established over the years between the body of the village and the culture of its inhabitants with the geographical features of the area. On the other hand, the location of a large number of small and large settlements in the mid-mountain valleys of the Alvand mountain range has led to the interaction between nature and man in this area and witness the formation of a special pattern and style of stone architecture in mountainous areas. The villages of Varkaneh, Arzanfood, Aliabad, etc. are well visible. The studied villages are located in the cheap mountain valley of Arzanfood, which is considered as one of the mountain valleys of Alvand Mountain (as Alvand is the eastern mountain). This region is known as the largest and longest valley in the Alvand Mountains, which is about 20 km long. Most of the villages in this region in terms of cultural heritage, tourism and handicrafts of Hamadan province due to the value of rural architecture, cultural and natural features are included in the list of villages targeted for tourism. All the mentioned factors caused the researchers to focus their efforts on introducing, recognizing and re-reading the most important features of the rural architecture of this region. The most important questions in this study are; what are the common similarities and architectural features of the villages studied in Valley of Arzanfood? What are the most important components and architectural elements of rural houses in the study area? What is the function of houses and residential houses in the rural architecture of the region? The approach of the present research is descriptive-analytical and its data collection method is based on field activities (including; Survey and visit, documenting and preparing plans, maps, photos, etc.) and library (including; use of books, reports and articles). Etc.). The results indicate that topography, geography and environmental conditions have played a dominant role in shaping the architecture of rural houses in this area, so that the villages are in mountainous areas and located in the direction of maximum sunlight. There is no order in the plan of the villages of the study area and the public utility buildings in the texture of the villages have led to the formation of other parts of the body such as alleys and barrens. These villages have a dense inner texture with narrow, winding passages. For residential houses, houses and openings are on the south side and in the direction of maximum sunlight. The main materials of the walls are carcasses and river rubble. The use of this type of stone materials has caused harmony and homogeneity in the rural appearance and the walls of residential houses in the villages of this region. And to cover the roofs of residential houses, the houses and houses of the villages of this region have mainly used the arching method and in some cases, arches. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107152.html Extended abstract Evaluation and investigation of spatial reflections of land use developments in rural settlements Introduction The fact is that land use and related developments are the result of a complex interactive network between internal forces and factors (natural-ecological and socio-economic environment) and a set of external factors. which can be traced in a continuous chain, the prerequisite for understanding these developments is to know the factors and fundamental forces shaping these changes. These changes forced the planners to carefully consider the changes in the spatial system of land use in the process of planning and land preparation. In the meantime, some researchers have focused on the understanding of land use changes independently and based on the study of the development process of changes, and a number of others have sought to understand the impact of demographic or environmental issues on the process of land use changes. Land use change is one of the challenges of rural settlements, which has been the focus of rural research in recent years. In this process, the turning of the rural economy and the beginning of consumerism has become the source of emerging developments in rural settlements. Materials and Methods The current research aims to investigate and analyze the evaluation of land use changes (1990-2023), settlement and spatial reflections in rural settlements. This survey was carried out in Shush city (Shush is one of the cities of Khuzestan province, which covers an area of nearly 3577 square kilometers of the province. This city is between 31 degrees and 41 minutes to 32 degrees and 31 minutes of north latitude and 47 degrees and 49 minutes to 48 degrees and 42 minutes east longitude) was done and 7 villages of this city were evaluated. The research method is descriptive-analytical and Google Earth Engine system was used to prepare and analyze the data. The first stage: extraction of the land use map of the seven villages of Sarkha, Ben Moali, Chenane, Seyed Abbas, Ahodasht, Shavor and Hossein Abad in the years 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2023 using Landsat 5, 7 and Landsat 8 images. is. Second step: Since the Landsat 7 images have suffered from technical problems since 2003, the GapFill_Landsat tool has been used to correct these images. Also, Landsat 8 level 2 images, which have acceptable atmospheric, radiometric and geometric corrections, have been used. Sampling educational points by two methods and evaluating and preparing a map of land use changes using the random forest algorithm was the second stage of the research. Discussion and Results In the investigation of the vegetation cover index, the highest amount of vegetation cover is in the east, south and center of the study area. Also, the lowest amount of vegetation is in the west of the region. Also, the highest amount of dense vegetation is in Bin Moali, Hossein Abad, Shavor and Ahodasht villages and the lowest is in Seyed Abbas village. Land use changes in villages can be an accessible sign to inform about increasing pressure on natural resources. In this study, the land use of seven districts was investigated and evaluated, and the general results showed that most of the region has undergone many changes. According to the survey and evaluation of the area along the river in Shush city and Haft Dehistan, it has caused the encroachment and occupation of the riverbed and privacy in the time series. Also, most of the surface of the region in most of the villages has been destroyed and turned into agricultural land or residential land. The results also show that the expansion of construction land is a key factor for the development of secondary industry, as well as a potential factor for regional greenhouse gas emissions. Examining the results of this issue, it became clear that the greenness of the vegetation has decreased from 1990 to 2023. In Chenaneh, Sorkheh and Seyed Abbas dehistans, it shows that most of this area has undergone many changes in the studied time series from the conversion of pastures to agricultural lands.. The highest amount of soil erosion is in Hossein Abad, Bin Moali, Chenane and Seyed Abbas villages. However, in the study of land use changes in these areas, it shows that in the areas where Chananeh and Seyed Abbas have undergone land use changes, soil erosion has also increased a lot. Also, in the areas that have the least soil erosion in the region, there have been the least land use changes. The electrical conductivity of Shush city aquifer shows that, around Dez river and around Shush city, the amount of EC is lower than other areas of the plain. While in the northern and southern parts of the center of the plain, there is an abnormality in the chemical quality of the underground water, which is not significant with other areas of the plain. Conclusion Housing selection, activity and employment, communicating with others, communal life, education and rest and relaxation in response to basic human needs create the context for this change in land use. Therefore, land use change is an important example of human impact on the environment. Evidence suggests that low-quality agricultural land is more likely to move into and out of intensive agricultural uses, and is also more environmentally sensitive based on some indicators of erosion, nutrient losses to water, and proximity to endangered species. This suggests that policies that increase cropping incentives and thereby stimulate production on economically marginal land will have smaller production effects and greater environmental impacts than if these characteristics of affected land were not taken into account. In contrast, environmental benefits can be achieved at lower cost through targeted conservation programs, as owners of low-quality, environmentally sensitive land need to pay less to remove land from production than owners of higher-quality land. Keywords: spatial evolution, random forest algorithm, remote sensing, Shush city https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107153.html مقدمه کارآفرینی روستایی به‌عنوان یکی از ابزارهای کلیدی برای توسعه پایدار، در کاهش فقر، ایجاد اشتغال و ارتقای کیفیت زندگی در مناطق روستایی نقش برجسته‌ای دارد. در مناطق تحت‌فشار اقتصادی و زیست‌محیطی، مانند حوضه زاینده‌رود، این اهمیت دوچندان می‌شود. در این مناطق که با بحران‌هایی چون خشکسالی، کاهش منابع آبی و ضعف زیرساخت‌های اقتصادی روبه‌رو هستند، کارآفرینی می‌تواند راهکاری برای کاهش بیکاری، بهبود معیشت و جلوگیری از مهاجرت به شهرها باشد. بااین‌حال، عوامل متعددی، به‌ویژه مسائل سیاسی و اقتصادی، پایداری کسب‌وکارهای روستایی را تهدید می‌کنند. تحریم‌ها و سیاست‌های اقتصادی غیرشفاف باعث محدودیت دسترسی به منابع مالی، فناوری‌های نوین و بازارهای جهانی شده‌اند که این امر نه‌تنها توان رقابت‌پذیری کسب‌وکارهای روستایی را کاهش داده، بلکه هزینه‌های تولید را نیز به شدت افزایش داده است. از سوی دیگر، ضعف در نهادهای حمایتی و کاهش مشارکت مدنی، جوامع روستایی را در برابر این چالش‌ها آسیب‌پذیرتر کرده است. در چنین شرایطی، اهمیت بررسی چالش‌های سیاسی و اقتصادی در مسیر توسعه پایدار کارآفرینی روستایی بیش‌ازپیش آشکار می‌شود. پژوهش حاضر با هدف تحلیل این چالش‌ها در منطقه شرقی زاینده‌رود، به دنبال ارائه راهکارهایی برای ارتقای پایداری و تقویت ظرفیت‌های محلی است. روش تحقیق این پژوهش با رویکرد کیفی و استفاده از نظریه داده‌بنیاد چارمز به بررسی چالش‌های سیاسی و اقتصادی پیش‌روی کارآفرینی روستایی پرداخته است. داده‌ها از طریق مصاحبه‌های عمیق با 40 نفر از ذینفعان شامل کارآفرینان، مدیران محلی، کارشناسان و پژوهشگران گردآوری شده است. تحلیل داده‌ها در سه مرحله کدگذاری باز، محوری و گزینشی انجام شد و نرم‌افزار MAXQDA برای ساماندهی و تحلیل داده‌ها مورد استفاده قرار گرفت. بحث و نتایج نتایج نشان داد که عواملی چون تحریم‌ها، تورم، گرانی، ناپایداری اقتصادی و ضعف مشارکت مدنی، از چالش‌های اصلی پیش‌روی پایداری کارآفرینی روستایی در این منطقه هستند. تحریم‌های بین‌المللی، از طریق کاهش دسترسی به منابع مالی و فناوری‌های پیشرفته، تأثیر عمیقی بر توان کارآفرینان برای توسعه و پایداری کسب‌وکارها داشته‌اند. افزایش هزینه‌های تولید و کاهش قدرت خرید مردم، نتیجه مستقیم این محدودیت‌ها بوده است. این شرایط باعث شده که بسیاری از کارآفرینان روستایی قادر به رقابت در بازارهای داخلی و خارجی نباشند و حتی در برخی موارد کسب‌وکارهای خود را تعطیل کنند. از سوی دیگر، سیاست‌های اقتصادی غیرشفاف و تغییرات مکرر در قوانین و مقررات، فضای اقتصادی پرابهامی ایجاد کرده که مانع از برنامه‌ریزی بلندمدت و تصمیم‌گیری استراتژیک شده است. علاوه بر این، ضعف در مشارکت مدنی و رویکردهای مدیریتی از بالا به پایین، ظرفیت جوامع محلی برای ایجاد شبکه‌های حمایتی را محدود کرده است. نبود شفافیت و پاسخگویی در فرآیندهای تصمیم‌گیری، اعتماد عمومی را کاهش داده و انگیزه‌های مشارکت جمعی را تضعیف کرده است. این ضعف نهادی و اجتماعی، در کنار چالش‌های اقتصادی، باعث شده که بسیاری از روستاها از بهره‌برداری از ظرفیت‌های کارآفرینی خود بازبمانند یافته‌های این پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که چالش‌های سیاسی و اقتصادی نظیر تحریم‌ها، تورم و ناپایداری اقتصادی، نه‌تنها بر توان رقابت‌پذیری کارآفرینان روستایی تأثیر گذاشته، بلکه به تضعیف امنیت اقتصادی و کاهش انگیزه‌های سرمایه‌گذاری نیز انجامیده است. این نتایج با مطالعات پیشین در زمینه تأثیر تحریم‌ها بر محدودیت دسترسی به بازارهای جهانی و افزایش هزینه‌های تولید همخوانی دارد. تحریم‌های بین‌المللی از طریق کاهش فرصت‌های صادراتی و ایجاد موانع در تأمین منابع، زمینه‌ای برای افزایش هزینه‌های تولید و کاهش رقابت‌پذیری کسب‌وکارهای روستایی فراهم کرده‌اند. در عین حال، تأثیرات تورم و گرانی نیز از جنبه‌های کلیدی در تضعیف محیط کسب‌وکار بوده است؛ تورم مداوم نه‌تنها قدرت خرید مصرف‌کنندگان را کاهش داده، بلکه از طریق افزایش هزینه‌های تولید، سودآوری و پایداری کسب‌وکارها را نیز تهدید کرده است. علاوه بر عوامل اقتصادی، ضعف در مشارکت مدنی یکی دیگر از چالش‌های کلیدی است که در این مطالعه شناسایی شد. رویکردهای مدیریتی از بالا به پایین، که اغلب بدون توجه به نیازها و پیشنهادهای جوامع محلی طراحی می‌شوند، نتوانسته‌اند شرایط لازم برای ایجاد همبستگی و مشارکت مؤثر در بین اعضای جامعه را فراهم کنند. این موضوع نه‌تنها ظرفیت جوامع برای شکل‌دهی شبکه‌های حمایتی را محدود کرده، بلکه اعتماد عمومی به نهادهای حکومتی و مدیریتی را نیز کاهش داده است. یافته‌های پژوهش تأکید دارند که مشارکت مدنی یکی از عناصر ضروری برای تقویت سرمایه اجتماعی و ایجاد محیطی پایدار برای کارآفرینی روستایی است.در این میان، ناپایداری اقتصادی به‌عنوان یکی از چالش‌های بنیادین، توانایی برنامه‌ریزی بلندمدت را از کارآفرینان سلب کرده است. تغییرات مکرر در سیاست‌های اقتصادی، نبود شفافیت در قوانین و مقررات، و عدم ثبات در بازارها، محیطی پرابهام و غیرقابل‌پیش‌بینی ایجاد کرده که کارآفرینان را به سمت محافظه‌کاری بیشتر سوق داده است. این وضعیت با نظریه‌های اقتصاد سیاسی که بر اهمیت ثبات نهادی برای توسعه اقتصادی تأکید دارند، تطابق دارد. در نهایت، یافته‌های این پژوهش بر ضرورت تقویت رویکردهای جامع برای مدیریت این چالش‌ها تأکید دارد. ایجاد نهادهای پاسخگو، شفاف‌سازی سیاست‌های اقتصادی، و طراحی برنامه‌های حمایتی برای کاهش اثرات تحریم‌ها و تورم، از جمله راهکارهای پیشنهادی است. همچنین، جلب مشارکت جوامع محلی در فرآیندهای تصمیم‌گیری و برنامه‌ریزی می‌تواند زمینه‌ساز تقویت سرمایه اجتماعی و ارتقای پایداری کسب‌وکارهای روستایی شود. نتیجه‌گیری تحلیل‌ها نشان می‌دهد که برای دستیابی به پایداری در کارآفرینی روستایی، نیاز به رویکردی جامع و چندبعدی وجود دارد. نخست، تقویت ثبات اقتصادی از طریق ارائه سیاست‌های حمایتی نظیر تسهیلات مالی، کاهش هزینه‌های تولید و ایجاد بازارهای محلی و منطقه‌ای ضروری است. دوم، توسعه مشارکت مدنی با ایجاد سازوکارهای مشارکتی در فرآیند برنامه‌ریزی و تصمیم‌گیری می‌تواند به افزایش اعتماد عمومی و تقویت سرمایه اجتماعی منجر شود. سوم، بهبود شفافیت نهادی از طریق ایجاد نهادهای پاسخگو و تقویت ظرفیت‌های مدیریتی در سطوح محلی، می‌تواند به پایداری کارآفرینی کمک کند. پژوهش حاضر تأکید دارد که سیاست‌گذاران باید با توجه به شرایط خاص مناطق روستایی، برنامه‌هایی جامع و متناسب برای رفع موانع موجود تدوین کنند. همچنین، توانمندسازی جوامع محلی از طریق آموزش، ارائه خدمات مشاوره‌ای و تقویت زیرساخت‌های فناوری، می‌تواند گام مؤثری در مسیر توسعه پایدار کارآفرینی باشد. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107154.html Introduction For centuries, rural livestock keepers in Iran have relied on shared and cooperative practices to manage their herds and process dairy products, practices that play a crucial role for both smallholders and large-scale livestock owners. These collaborations, which are rooted in the ancient traditions and tangible needs of rural life, not only enhance economic productivity but also strengthen social ties, reinforce rural social cohesion, and facilitate the circulation of indigenous knowledge. These patterns of cooperation, often formed due to seasonal needs and common challenges, indicate the accumulation of precious experiences of previous generations and are an integral part of the rural micro-economy. This study aims to explore indigenous knowledge and to examine social institutions such as “Chekeneh” and “Vadoush,” which function as traditional social structures shaping livestock management and dairy production practices and are in fact the main pillar of self-government and economic resilience of rural communities. The significance of these institutions lies in their capacity to provide reliable frameworks for the intergenerational transmission of knowledge and managerial skills. This Knowledge includes accurate acquaintance of pastures, types of wild plants, traditional hygiene practices, and how to process milk with local tools and methods. This generational transmission preserves the traditional patterns of livestock management and milk processing in the face of rapid economic and cultural changes and prevents a generational rupture regarding this vital knowledge. Moreover, these institutions provide a good ground for fostering the sense of belonging to the group and collective identity, which is so vital in rural communities with complex and sensitive social structures. Participation in these collective activities increases the sense of empathy and solidarity among members of the community and contributes to a strong support network. A network that can be very efficient in the face of potential crises (such as drought, animal disease, or severe market fluctuations). Such a social cohesion has positive feedback on economic activities and reinforces the cycle of sustainability in the region. Methodology This study adopts a qualitative, field-based research approach. To elicit and document indigenous pastoral knowledge, a combination of survey techniques and qualitative methods, including semi-structured interviews, direct observation, and participant observation, along with the presence in the field individually and in groups with experienced residents was employed to enhance data richness and analytical reliability. These approaches enabled a deeper understanding of cooperative management practices and local belief systems, while also capturing the lived experiences and social interactions of rural livestock keepers. Through a semi-active presence in rangelands and pastoral settlements, and by participating in the everyday activities of livestock keepers, the researcher collected rich and empirically grounded data on the functioning of local social institutions. In this study, snowball sampling method, which is a kind of non-probabilistic sampling, has been utilized to identify and select participants (farmers). This method has provided access to communication networks among ranchers and assisted to discover and interview people who may not be identified through traditional sampling methods. Accordingly, using snowball sampling method, a number of natives who had sufficient knowledge in herd management were initially identified as the core of the research. Then, these local experts were asked to introduce other people with similar expertise. In the same way, the interviews continued until new information was obtained. With regard to ethical considerations, questions were asked about the beginning and end of joint herding, the role of each member, holding ceremonies, milk balance, cost estimation, distribution of products, and so on. Sometimes interviews with experts were accompanied by direct and participatory observation, which is very useful in exploratory research. Following data collection, thematic analysis was employed as the primary analytical method. In qualitative research, thematic analysis involves the systematic examination and interpretation of materials such as interviews and field notes in order to identify recurring patterns, themes, and key concepts. Accordingly, all data were recorded, transcribed, and systematically coded, enabling the identification and analytical categorization of concepts related to indigenous pastoral knowledge, the role of social institutions, and traditional cooperative mechanisms. Therefore, in this research, the data, after recording and editing, have become written texts and by coding them, concepts related to indigenous pastoral knowledge, the role of social institutions and traditional cooperative mechanisms have been identified and categorized. Coding, as a key technique in content analysis, helps researchers divide the data into smaller sections and identify common patterns. This process assists to better understand the relationships between themes and concepts and can lead to the discovery of new insights in various fields. In fact, this method of analysis allows researchers to present their results comprehensively and accurately and gain a deeper understanding of the case study. This type of analysis is particularly effective in the social and cultural contexts where qualitative data play an important role. Results and Discussion Analysis of the field data indicates that herd management during the seasonal spring–summer partnership in the study area is grounded in traditional cooperative mechanisms and broad-based participation among livestock keepers, institutionally organized through “Chekeneh” and “Vadoush.” These mechanisms are rooted in mutual cooperation among livestock keepers and in locally embedded rituals and belief systems, which play a decisive role in milk management and dairy production. Seasonal cooperation among livestock keepers in “Shah-Kuh Sofla” village contributes to increased productivity and more effective coordination of herding activities. Among people in the social institution "Chekeneh", the decision to become a collaborator is made annually based on factors such as the number of livestock, kinship, and the network of social relations. The social institution of “Chekeneh” plays an active role in herd management through clearly defined positions such as “Arbab,” “Mokhtabad,” “Sarmokhtabad,” and “Donbaldou.” Through a structured division of labor and responsibilities, these roles facilitate complex patterns of interaction and coordination in the day-to-day management of livestock, ensuring both operational efficiency and collective cohesion. For example, the supervision and leadership of the group is the responsibility of a person named "Arbab". The basis for choosing Arbab is primarily to have more indigenous experience and knowledge in animal husbandry. In local narratives, https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107672.html The expansion of second homes and villa settlements in rural regions has become a defining feature of contemporary rural transformation in many parts of the world. In northern Iran, particularly in Mazandaran Province, this phenomenon has intensified over the past two decades, reshaping rural landscapes, social relations, and everyday experiences of local communities. While a substantial body of international and Iranian scholarship has addressed the physical, economic, and environmental consequences of second-home development, considerably less attention has been paid to its cognitive–emotional and experiential dimensions. Specifically, the ways in which spatial changes associated with second homes affect place memory, social cognition, and local identity among indigenous rural residents remain underexplored. This study seeks to address this gap by examining the lived experiences of local villagers through a neuroanthropological perspective that integrates ethnographic data with insights from cognitive and social neuroscience. The primary objective of this research is to analyze how spatial transformations induced by second homes contribute to the transformation of place memory, the redefinition of insider/outsider boundaries, and the emergence of everyday strategies of adaptation and resistance. Drawing on neuroanthropology, the study moves beyond descriptive accounts of social change to explore how cultural practices, emotional responses, and cognitive processes are shaped by—and, in turn, shape—changing environments. From this perspective, place is understood not merely as a physical setting but as a neuroculturally embedded construct that is continuously produced through memory, emotion, and social interaction. Methodologically, the study adopts a qualitative ethnographic approach. Fieldwork was conducted in four rural villages in Mazandaran Province—Ski-Mahalleh Harazpey, Mianrud Harazpey, Oji-Abad, and Alamdah-e Sharqi—selected due to their varying degrees of exposure to second-home development. Data were collected through 30 in-depth and semi-structured interviews with indigenous residents of different ages and genders, complemented by participant observation and systematic field notes. The interviews focused on residents’ perceptions of spatial change, experiences of coexistence with seasonal non-local residents, memories of past landscapes, and everyday practices related to land use, social interaction, and cultural continuity. The data were analyzed using a three-stage coding process (open, axial, and selective coding), allowing for the identification of recurring patterns and the construction of analytically robust themes. The findings are organized around five interrelated themes. First, the transformation of place memory and place attachment emerged as a central concern. Many participants described a sense of emotional rupture associated with altered landscapes, restricted access to formerly shared spaces, and the disappearance of familiar environmental cues. These changes were frequently narrated as a loss of continuity between past and present, indicating disruptions in environmental memory and autobiographical place-based recollection. Second, the redefinition of insider/outsider boundaries was evident across all four villages. The presence of seasonal residents and non-local property owners prompted new social categorizations, ranging from cautious coexistence to symbolic exclusion, reflecting ongoing negotiations of trust, belonging, and social prediction. Third, participants articulated changing meanings of ownership and belonging, as land and housing increasingly became commodities rather than collective or heritage-based resources. This shift contributed to feelings of alienation and moral ambivalence, particularly among older residents. Fourth, villagers developed everyday strategies of adaptation and resistance, including selective interaction with newcomers, reinforcement of local rituals, and the preservation of traditional agricultural practices. These strategies functioned as mechanisms for maintaining social coherence and emotional stability in the face of rapid spatial change. Finally, the weakening of intergenerational transmission of local knowledge and collective memory was identified as a growing concern, as younger generations appeared less engaged with local histories, ecological knowledge, and place-based practices. Interpreted through a neuroanthropological lens, these findings suggest that the impacts of second homes extend beyond visible material transformations and are deeply intertwined with cognitive and emotional processes. Spatial changes influence environmental memory systems, social empathy, and mechanisms of identity formation, shaping how individuals perceive risk, predict social behavior, and regulate emotions. The study highlights that disruptions in place memory and social cognition can undermine social cohesion and long-term cultural sustainability in rural communities. In conclusion, this research demonstrates the value of integrating neuroanthropology into rural studies and second-home research. By foregrounding place memory and social cognition, it provides a more comprehensive understanding of how rural communities experience and negotiate spatial transformation. The findings underscore the need for rural development policies and regulatory frameworks on second homes to consider not only economic and environmental factors but also the cognitive–emotional and cultural dimensions of place. Failure to account for these dimensions risks deepening social fragmentation and weakening the neurocultural foundations of rural life.Failure to account for these dimensions risks deepening social fragmentation and weakening the neurocultural foundations of rural life. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_107935.html Extended Abstract Introduction In recent years, structural empowerment of rural communities has increasingly been recognized as a fundamental prerequisite for achieving local self-organization. Self-organization, as an endogenous process, emerges when rural communities, through internal interactions, collective management of resources, and institution-building, achieve order, resilience, and effective decision-making without reliance on external guidance. However, the accomplishment of this process depends on the presence of institutional and supportive platforms provided through structural empowerment, including access to resources, information, learning opportunities, and institutional support. Predominantly top-down approaches in rural development programs have weakened local capacities and the agency of communities, replacing genuine participation with dependency. In contrast, structural empowerment provides a framework to strengthen agency, self-reliance, and collective participation, creating the conditions for sustainable rural self-organization. Domestic and international experiences indicate that genuine realization of this process is only possible through a reciprocal linkage between supportive top-down policies and grassroots local initiatives. Accordingly, this study adopts a qualitative approach and is grounded in Kanter’s (1993, 1997) theoretical framework to identify structural dimensions affecting the formation and sustainability of rural self-organization in Ashtian County, demonstrating that the synergy of the four main dimensions of structural empowerment is a fundamental condition for this process. Materials and Methods This qualitative study employed a content analysis approach. The study population included experts from the academic, governmental, and private sectors in Ashtian County. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 30 experts, selected purposively to ensure participants had first-hand experience and knowledge relevant to the topic. Sampling continued until theoretical saturation was achieved. The collected data were transcribed and analyzed using MAXQDA 2020 software through two stages of coding - open and axial - leading to the identification of core concepts. Results and Discussion Thirty experts and informants, specializing in the rural development planning and community empowerment, contributed to this study. The participants were drawn from three expert groups: 40% academic, 33% governmental, and 27% private sector experts. The qualitative analysis of interview data led to the identification of 24 meaning units, which were categorized into 5 subcategories and ultimately 4 main categories, corresponding to the dimensions of structural empowerment: opportunity (education and awareness-raising), information (knowledge and skills), access to resources (material and non-material resources), and support (institution-building, participation, and cooperation). Findings indicated that the first dimension, Opportunity (education and awareness), is enhanced through participatory training programs on teamwork, organization-building, and institution building, fostering social cohesion and collective collaboration. Simultaneously, technical training and knowledge related to modern agricultural technologies, processing, packaging, marketing, and product sales strengthen rural communities’ ability to utilize existing resources and engage in competitive markets. In the second dimension, Information (knowledge and skills), training in skills such as branding, negotiation, marketing, and selling local products, combined with the development of agricultural and non-agricultural production skills, significantly enhances rural capacities. These skills not only improve productivity and quality but also facilitate active participation and independent management of local resources, reducing dependency on intermediaries. The third dimension, Access to resources, includes access to financial, physical, and non-material resources, information networks, and advisory services, enabling optimal use of local resources and creating sustainable social and economic capacities. Finally, the fourth dimension, Support and backing (organization-building, participation, and collaboration), through the strengthening of associations, cooperatives, and local councils and by delegating decision-making authority to rural residents, fosters genuine participation, social resilience, and sustainability of the self-organization process. These findings align with prior studies, including Mitra & Kondo (2012), Maiaka et al. (2018), Rappaport (1981), Irwin et al. (2023), Yousefi & Shafiei-Sabet (2021), and Shafiei-Sabet & Arab Mokhtari (2024), highlighting that sustainable self-organization can only be achieved when education, knowledge and skill development, access to resources, and institutional support are provided in an integrated, participatory manner within rural communities. Conclusion This study aims to identify the structural empowerment dimensions influencing rural self-organization in Ashtian County. According to Kanter’s theory (1993, 1997), structural empowerment entails access to resources, information, institutional support, and participatory opportunities. These conditions not only enhance rural residents’ sense of competence but also create the basis for initiative, collective action, and self-initiated local institutions. Overall, the findings indicate that genuine rural self-organization cannot be achieved through superficial and externally dependent top-down interventions, which undermine agency and self-reliance while reproducing dependency. In contrast, sustainable self-organization is possible only through comprehensive and synergistic structural empowerment, wherein all four dimensions are implemented integrally to enhance individual capacities, foster participatory spaces, build social trust, and strengthen local institutions, thereby improving social resilience. Consequently, policymakers and rural development planners are recommended to prioritize internal capacities and local capabilities over top-down interventions. Transforming the government’s role from “implemention” to “facilitation,” through supporting local initiatives, ensuring equal access to resources and opportunities, and creating institutional platforms for participation, can be key to achieving sustainable rural self-organization. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_108056.html Agricultural tourism with a high capacity to utilize local products is one of the new approaches to developing rural tourism. Over the past six decades, saffron has transformed from a complementary product to one of the main pillars of the local economy in Natanz city. The present study, with a qualitative approach and ethnographic method, analyzes the livelihood transition from cultivating low-yield crops such as potatoes to cultivating and supplying saffron, its role in the formation of saffron tourism, and examines the capacities of this type of tourism in Natanz city. Data were collected through participatory observation and in-depth interviews with saffron farmers, rural women, local informants, and tourism activists and analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings show that the transition to cultivating the world's most expensive spice has increased the capital and social status of the residents of Natanz city and has paved the way for its transformation into a tourism experience in the last two decades. This study also emphasizes that the importance of saffron tourism is not limited to visiting saffron fields and selling saffron products, but rather the indigenous knowledge of saffron farmers, family participation in the production, harvesting and supply process, the lived experience of farmers and the cultural identity of the village constitute the most important elements of the attractiveness of saffron tourism and considers the development of saffron tourism as a strategy for linking the local economy, local culture and sustainable rural development. Analysis of ethnographic data showed that the process of planting, keeping, and harvesting saffron in Natanz involves a series of social interactions and family division of labor. This feature prevents tourists from encountering an agricultural activity upon entering the production space and allows them to learn about the lifestyle of saffron growers, local values, and knowledge. Therefore, participating in saffron harvesting or being present at the stages of saffron cleaning is a cultural and educational experience for many tourists. Saffron in Natanz has characteristics that make it a source of local development. This capacity is formed from within the local community and based on knowledge, skills and experience, and its continuity depends on the active participation of saffron growers and tourism activists. Therefore, any planning for the development of saffron tourism will not be successful without considering the role of the local community, and they must participate in the design, implementation and management of saffron tourism activities as owners of knowledge and intangible heritage. The development of saffron tourism also faces challenges. The limited tourism infrastructure in some villages, the lack of coherent planning to introduce this potential, weak marketing, and the lack of effective linkages between the agricultural and tourism sectors are the most important obstacles to utilizing these capabilities. These challenges indicate that having natural and cultural potentials alone is not enough to form sustainable tourism and requires policymaking and the participation of the local community. In addition to being categorized as agritourism, saffron tourism is a type of creative tourism or a sustainable form of tourism that is based on learning in saffron fields and provides the opportunity to develop creative capacities through the active participation and experiences of the residents of the saffron growing area. Thus, the self-awareness, self-knowledge and self-confidence of visitors are strengthened. Creativity is an important part of the tourism destination and they will realize other values of the tourism destination such as the culture and nature of the local community. Therefore, if coordination is established between saffron growers, agency owners, tour operators, and accommodation center managers, saffron can be viewed as one of the tourist attractions and Natanz can be considered as a saffron tourism hub in the future. According to the research findings, the development of saffron tourism in Natanz will lead to sustainable rural development when it is based on the internal capacities of the villages and the active participation of the local community. In such circumstances, tourism helps to increase income and diversify the rural economy, and also helps to strengthen local identity and increase the social value of agricultural activities. The results of the research show that the development of saffron tourism in Natanz will help diversify the regional economy, preserve indigenous knowledge, strengthen local identity, increase the income of villagers, and subsequently strengthen various aspects of sustainable development in the region. The most important asset of saffron tourism is the indigenous knowledge of saffron growers. Knowledge that is formed through experience and family cooperation and includes practical skills, beliefs and lifestyles related to saffron. Therefore, protecting this knowledge and providing the possibility of transferring it to tourists is one of the most important characteristics of saffron tourism development. https://jrur.ut.ac.ir/article_108193.html Extended Abstract Introduction The trajectory of rural development is profoundly shaped by external agencies, mechanisms, and driving forces that operate beyond the scope of programmatic interventions. These external factors exert a dynamic and pivotal influence across diverse national contexts, underscoring the critical role of pre-existing institutional capacities in steering and redefining developmental pathways. In economies reliant on agricultural production, social norms and structural mechanisms significantly dictate the course of rural development. In Iran, rural development has become a cornerstone of national policy and an ideological imperative. Yet, over seven decades of implementing rural development programs reveal a persistent top-down approach, undermining their efficacy within rural social frameworks. The pronounced impact of external forces has perpetuated socio-economic and spatial inequalities, entrenching systemic disparities. Existing literature highlights fundamental challenges in executing rural development plans in Iran, yet few studies have systematically explored the intricate interplay of agencies and driving forces shaping program outcomes. Addressing this research gap is essential to uncovering external shortcomings and devising targeted strategies for improvement. This study aims to investigate and analyze the agencies, mechanisms, and driving forces that critically influence the effectiveness of rural development programs in Iran, offering insights to enhance their impact. Methodology This study adopts an applied research approach, employing a mixed-methods design to collect and analyze data, guided by the standardized mixed-method framework proposed by Efa Multa Boro et al. (2025). The mixed-methods approach was selected to address the conceptual gaps in existing models relevant to the research topic, enabling a comprehensive exploration of the agencies, mechanisms, and driving forces influencing rural development in Iran. Data analysis was conducted in two distinct phases. In the first phase, a qualitative approach was utilized to develop a conceptual model through content analysis. Qualitative data were gathered via in-depth interviews with 34 experts and stakeholders in Iran's rural development sector, selected using a theoretical purposive sequential sampling method to ensure pattern formation. The interviews were analyzed using a thematic network approach, which extracted key themes that informed the construction of the research’s conceptual model. The second phase involved testing the factors identified in the conceptual model using structural equation modeling (SEM). A sample size of 129 participants was determined using G*Power software, based on statistical power requirements. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire featuring closed-ended questions and a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree), a standard tool for assessing attitudes and perceptions in rural development research. To enhance question clarity and construct validity, a pre-test was conducted with 20 questionnaires. Data analysis was performed using SPSS and SMART PLS software to evaluate the relationships and hypotheses outlined in the theoretical framework, ensuring robust testing of the proposed model. Results and discussion The analysis identified four primary themes shaping the agencies, mechanisms, and driving forces impacting rural development programs in Iran: Centralized Planning System (CPS) with the highest influence (path coefficient = 0.336), Legal Deficiencies (LD) (0.265), Political Economy of Petroleum (PEO) (0.255), and Institutional-Structural Inadequacies (ISI) (0.183). Results from the structural equation modeling confirm that all identified factors significantly affect rural development policies. The findings underscore the vulnerability of rural development to government policies, aligning with the notion that rural development functions as a form of state intervention. Rather than being driven by a coherent planning framework, it is shaped by official policies and macro-level (national and global) developments. The government, acting as the primary orchestrator of territorial development, imposes substantial costs on development programs through its policy-making focus. The oil-centric governance model, bolstered by significant petroleum revenues, has marginalized rural development actors and failed to establish a robust legal framework for hierarchical planning. Consequently, territorial spaces have been transformed into platforms for ideological representation rather than strategic development, shifting rural programs from developmental to ideological endeavors. This dynamic reflects the resource curse, where dependence on resource wealth neglects non-resource sectors. The study also reveals a contradiction between provincial and national rural development programs, termed the “rural program spell.” For instance, the Tehran provincial spatial planning strategy emphasizes rural preservation and development as a core objective, yet rural areas receive a disproportionately small share of the provincial budget due to the prioritization of the capital’s functions. This mirrors broader trends in centralized governance systems, which often favor national objectives over local needs, limiting flexibility and adaptability in rural planning (Dandkar & Hibbard, 2016). As a result, the oil revenue-supported policy-making system remains unresponsive to rural institutions, perpetuating inequalities and marginalization. Conclusion This study underscores the profound impact of external institutional factors, centralized governance, and an oil-dependent political economy on the inefficacy of rural development programs in Iran. The findings reveal a systemic marginalization of rural communities, driven by top-down planning, elite-dominated decision-making, and the absence of robust legal and participatory frameworks. These dynamics, exacerbated by the rentier state’s urban bias and resource exploitation, perpetuate spatial inequalities and undermine sustainable territorial development. By highlighting the critical need for decentralized institutional structures, inclusive legal mechanisms, and pluralistic governance, this research offers a pathway toward equitable and resilient rural development. The proposed strategies, including empowering local governments and formalizing public-private partnerships, aim to realign policies with regional needs and foster sustainable empowerment. Contributing to the broader discourse on resource-based economies, this study illuminates the interplay of power, governance, and spatial disparity in Iran. Future research should pursue comparative analyses with other rentier states to refine inclusive rural development frameworks, ensuring alignment with global sustainability objectives and local socio-economic realities.