Extended Abstract

Introduction

The trajectory of rural development is profoundly shaped by external agencies, mechanisms, and driving forces that operate beyond the scope of programmatic interventions. These external factors exert a dynamic and pivotal influence across diverse national contexts, underscoring the critical role of pre-existing institutional capacities in steering and redefining developmental pathways. In economies reliant on agricultural production, social norms and structural mechanisms significantly dictate the course of rural development. In Iran, rural development has become a cornerstone of national policy and an ideological imperative. Yet, over seven decades of implementing rural development programs reveal a persistent top-down approach, undermining their efficacy within rural social frameworks. The pronounced impact of external forces has perpetuated socio-economic and spatial inequalities, entrenching systemic disparities. Existing literature highlights fundamental challenges in executing rural development plans in Iran, yet few studies have systematically explored the intricate interplay of agencies and driving forces shaping program outcomes. Addressing this research gap is essential to uncovering external shortcomings and devising targeted strategies for improvement. This study aims to investigate and analyze the agencies, mechanisms, and driving forces that critically influence the effectiveness of rural development programs in Iran, offering insights to enhance their impact.



Methodology

This study adopts an applied research approach, employing a mixed-methods design to collect and analyze data, guided by the standardized mixed-method framework proposed by Efa Multa Boro et al. (2025). The mixed-methods approach was selected to address the conceptual gaps in existing models relevant to the research topic, enabling a comprehensive exploration of the agencies, mechanisms, and driving forces influencing rural development in Iran. Data analysis was conducted in two distinct phases.

In the first phase, a qualitative approach was utilized to develop a conceptual model through content analysis. Qualitative data were gathered via in-depth interviews with 34 experts and stakeholders in Iran's rural development sector, selected using a theoretical purposive sequential sampling method to ensure pattern formation. The interviews were analyzed using a thematic network approach, which extracted key themes that informed the construction of the research’s conceptual model.

The second phase involved testing the factors identified in the conceptual model using structural equation modeling (SEM). A sample size of 129 participants was determined using G*Power software, based on statistical power requirements. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire featuring closed-ended questions and a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree), a standard tool for assessing attitudes and perceptions in rural development research. To enhance question clarity and construct validity, a pre-test was conducted with 20 questionnaires. Data analysis was performed using SPSS and SMART PLS software to evaluate the relationships and hypotheses outlined in the theoretical framework, ensuring robust testing of the proposed model.



Results and discussion



The analysis identified four primary themes shaping the agencies, mechanisms, and driving forces impacting rural development programs in Iran: Centralized Planning System (CPS) with the highest influence (path coefficient = 0.336), Legal Deficiencies (LD) (0.265), Political Economy of Petroleum (PEO) (0.255), and Institutional-Structural Inadequacies (ISI) (0.183). Results from the structural equation modeling confirm that all identified factors significantly affect rural development policies.

The findings underscore the vulnerability of rural development to government policies, aligning with the notion that rural development functions as a form of state intervention. Rather than being driven by a coherent planning framework, it is shaped by official policies and macro-level (national and global) developments. The government, acting as the primary orchestrator of territorial development, imposes substantial costs on development programs through its policy-making focus. The oil-centric governance model, bolstered by significant petroleum revenues, has marginalized rural development actors and failed to establish a robust legal framework for hierarchical planning. Consequently, territorial spaces have been transformed into platforms for ideological representation rather than strategic development, shifting rural programs from developmental to ideological endeavors. This dynamic reflects the resource curse, where dependence on resource wealth neglects non-resource sectors.

The study also reveals a contradiction between provincial and national rural development programs, termed the “rural program spell.” For instance, the Tehran provincial spatial planning strategy emphasizes rural preservation and development as a core objective, yet rural areas receive a disproportionately small share of the provincial budget due to the prioritization of the capital’s functions. This mirrors broader trends in centralized governance systems, which often favor national objectives over local needs, limiting flexibility and adaptability in rural planning (Dandkar & Hibbard, 2016). As a result, the oil revenue-supported policy-making system remains unresponsive to rural institutions, perpetuating inequalities and marginalization.



Conclusion

This study underscores the profound impact of external institutional factors, centralized governance, and an oil-dependent political economy on the inefficacy of rural development programs in Iran. The findings reveal a systemic marginalization of rural communities, driven by top-down planning, elite-dominated decision-making, and the absence of robust legal and participatory frameworks. These dynamics, exacerbated by the rentier state’s urban bias and resource exploitation, perpetuate spatial inequalities and undermine sustainable territorial development. By highlighting the critical need for decentralized institutional structures, inclusive legal mechanisms, and pluralistic governance, this research offers a pathway toward equitable and resilient rural development. The proposed strategies, including empowering local governments and formalizing public-private partnerships, aim to realign policies with regional needs and foster sustainable empowerment. Contributing to the broader discourse on resource-based economies, this study illuminates the interplay of power, governance, and spatial disparity in Iran. Future research should pursue comparative analyses with other rentier states to refine inclusive rural development frameworks, ensuring alignment with global sustainability objectives and local socio-economic realities.